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Lista de candidatos sometidos a examen:
1) tense (*)
(*) Términos presentes en el nuestro glosario de lingüística

1) Candidate: tense


Is in goldstandard

1
paper CO_ColombianAppliedLinguisticsJournaltxt268 - : When these dominant learners were asked in the interviews why they mocked and bullied their classmates, they did not openly recognize this deed. However, according to data analysis in the field notes, we determined that the low investors’ ambivalent, dominant, and repressive identity in the classroom was a result of two tense issues: First, they reacted against having to take a class they did not like . So, instead of investing in their learning, they procrastinated and preferred to bully their classmates (Field notes, October 20, 2016). Second, they were pressured to pass the course because it was a duty with their parents. They usually said:

2
paper CO_ColombianAppliedLinguisticsJournaltxt53 - : An analysis of the three main issues regarding syntactic transfer reveals that one of the most common syntactic properties that influenced the learner's interlanguage was that of the pro-drop parameter. In cases in which subjects such as "I" or "they" were needed, the learner would omit them. In terms of word-order, I may say that most of the learner's sentences were correctly constructed following the SVO pattern of English. There was only one instance in which a different pattern was used (see discussion below). Regarding the use of the English tense present continuous, there is an instance in which it was correctly constructed (be + gerund) but with errors in meaning ([32]1) and there was another instance in which there were both errors in form and meaning ([33]2):

3
paper CO_ColombianAppliedLinguisticsJournaltxt30 - : In [33]Extract 5, as the interaction took place while the students were at the board, the teacher read part of the sentence that he had asked the students to dictate to him. In line 6, the teacher read the first part of the sentence in the text, and in lines 7 and 8, two students read the verb, although a student repeated the auxiliary verb the teacher had already read (line 7). As in other instances in this lesson, the focus was on grammar and complete sentences were often not read aloud. Students often bid for answers to identify, and read aloud. [34]Extract 6 below shows them bidding to read aloud sentences incorporating the present perfect tense:

4
paper CO_FormayFuncióntxt220 - : The Spanish verbal translational problem mentioned above has been accounted for without much trouble in English, French, and Russian. Forms of the indicative present tense have been used in all cases: E .: is... alive; F.: existe-t-il; R.: существует. In other words the Equivalence Range is narrower in comparison to Spanish variations. Let us see now a case where one the renderings have made outside the Equivalence Range, i.e. where DEP has not been followed and some unexplained changes have taken place. At the beginning of the second paragraph one reads:

5
paper CO_FormayFuncióntxt240 - : THE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE IN PERUVIAN ANDEAN SPANISH: INNOVATIVE USES AND EXTENSION TO AORISTIC CONTEXTS

6
paper CO_Lenguajetxt150 - : These kinds of errors are divided into different groups. (1) Over-generalization: defines how students apply already learned rules to other new situations based on their experience with previous ones, it involves the creation of one inaccurately rule instead of two different rules. Examples about the use of “s” in regular plurals or the ending “-ed” in every verb are included in this group. (2) Ignorance of rule restrictions: refers to the application of rules to the context where they do not apply. This application is derived from an analogy. For instance, a particular preposition before a verb and its use with verbs that don’t accept it. (3) Incomplete application of rules: defines the failure of students when using complete rules. The degree of development is not acceptable to produce utterances. One example is the structure of questions. The use of auxiliaries in the simple present tense: “You go to the park ?” Instead of “Do you go to the park?” (4) False concepts hypothesized: learners

7
paper CO_Lenguajetxt150 - : can fall into an incorrect conceptualization due to a lack of comprehension among the distinct elements of language. For example, the verb “is” could be considered as a mark of the simple present tense which may cause its use in every sentence of that tense: Carlos is works in a company .

8
paper CO_Lenguajetxt7 - : [65]4. Finite clauses are those that contain a finite verbal element expressing tense or modality (Halliday 2004: 111 ) while non-finite clauses contain no finite element but they have other verbal forms such as infinitives, gerunds or participles.

9
paper CO_Íkalatxt127 - : Among the syntactic mitigating devices the RP group used, the formal pronoun/verb form and aspect were the most frequently used, followed by the conditional tense:

10
paper CO_Íkalatxt137 - : Examples (1a-c) show that past and present tenses do not behave as mere opposites. Instead, past tense unambiguously signals past time, whereas the present tense is not necessarily specified for time. In (a) example, present tense demonstrates a range of temporal meanings: it is used to indicate a habitual reading that is independent of time . Examples (b) and (c) show how to signal the future, and to signal the past respectively.

11
paper CO_Íkalatxt137 - : In English, tense is marked with inflections on verbs, consider the following examples:

12
paper CO_Íkalatxt137 - : In (4), the verb eat is uninflected because the subject Noun Phrase (NP)[26]^1 is plural ( John and Mary). In (5) the auxiliary has (singular) was used alongside the inflected verb eaten because the subject ( John) is singular while in (6), the auxiliary verb have (plural) was used because of the plural subject ( John and Mary). However, in both Yorùbá[27]^2 and Malay[28]^3 verbs are never inflected for tense marking and there is no agreement relation between subjects and verbs, consider the following examples in [29]table 1:

13
paper CO_Íkalatxt109 - : TENSE: PRESENT

14
paper CO_Íkalatxt109 - : TENSE: PAST

15
paper CO_Íkalatxt109 - : TENSE: FUTURE

16
paper CO_Íkalatxt109 - : TENSE: PRESENT

17
paper CO_Íkalatxt109 - : TENSE: PRESENT

18
paper CO_Íkalatxt109 - : TENSE: PRESENT

19
paper CO_Íkalatxt109 - : TENSE: PRESENT Aspect: Perfect Progressive

20
paper CO_Íkalatxt109 - : TENSE: PAST

21
paper CO_Íkalatxt109 - : TENSE: PAST Aspect: Progressive

22
paper CO_Íkalatxt109 - : TENSE: PAST Aspect: Past Perfect

23
paper CO_Íkalatxt109 - : TENSE: FUTURE Aspect: Simple

24
paper CO_Íkalatxt101 - : In addition to functioning as a future tense marker, go can also function as a coordinator in a sentence, usually imperative order:

25
paper CO_Íkalatxt101 - : The English copular verb be which is the lexical source for bin in NP is grammaticalized as a past tense marker (in NP) having undergone functional renewal which involves reuse of an old construction for a new function (Traugott, 2004, p. 134). Just like the future tense marker, bin precedes the verb:

26
paper CO_Íkalatxt101 - : interpretation of non-past tense which is overtly marked. From the perspective of minimalist syntax, the position of TP is occupied by this null tense marker:

27
paper UY_ALFALtxt102 - : [153]Ambar, Manuela et al. 2004. Tense, Quantification and Clause Structure in EP and BP: Evidence from a Comparative Study on Sempre, em R . Bok-Bennema et al. (Orgs.) Romance Languages and Linguistic Theory 2002, Amsterdam, John Benjamins, 1-16.

28
paper VE_BoletindeLinguisticatxt64 - : 1. TE: “[I]n most languages, the various types of conditional statements are indicated by choices of tense, aspect and mood in the protasis (the “if clause”) and the apodosis (the “then clause”). For example, the apodosis of real conditions is generally declarative or imperative and in the present or future tense. The set of conditional structures can become quite complex in languages that make multiple distinctions between mood, aspect, and tense” (Whaley 1997: 253 ).

29
paper VE_Núcleotxt1 - : Negation exhibits a quite steady pattern, being in most cases indicated by means of the suffix –ha ‘NEG. In transitive, ditransitive and intransitive constructions, -ha ‘NEG’ is attached to the stem of the main verb which as a result of this adjunction loses its tense marker triggering the incorporation of the auxiliary Bañ:o ‘BE’ for the purpose of framing the construction within temporal boundaries . When negation involves BE-sentences, the particular negative forms of Bañ:o must be used. (Romero-Figueroa, 2000: 32)^4

30
paper corpusSignostxt217 - : Tense and aspect:

31
paper corpusSignostxt469 - : It can be seen in (5) how NNS4 indicates that she did not use the correct verb tense, and that she meant to use the preterite form: I had the ...accent but not anymore (tuve el acento...pero ya no) but, as can be seen in her utterance, she opted for overgeneralising present perfect tense instead. This is usually a confusing aspect for English speakers who have similar tenses, but which do not exactly equal the types of tenses in Spanish, a language considered more flexible than English (^[122]Johnston, 1995; ^[123]Deveau, 1998; ^[124]Dominguez & Arche, 2008). The data revealed that the learners needed to resort to this CS more frequently in the open task to solve problems related to verb forms. This seems to suggest that again the cognitive demands posed by this task may have influenced the learners’ CS use. It was observed that the learners’ communicative desire to speak about themselves -as they were more familiar with the topics provided- seem to have prompted more L2 language

32
paper corpusSignostxt325 - : Desde una óptica ‘cognitiva’ y ‘psicolingüística’, puede tenerse en cuenta, en primer lugar, cómo ciertos contextos figurativos suelen propiciar la aparición de UFS que sigan ilustrando los mismos esquemas metafóricos y metonímicos sobre los que se asientan. Dicho de otro modo, la transparencia figurativa que presentan de por sí ciertas expresiones idiomáticas se suele ver favorecida por su inserción en contextos que se orientan conceptualmente hacia el mismo patrón figurativo que las genera (Gibbs, 1994; Olza, 2009). Esto es lo que se aprecia, por ejemplo, en el siguiente pasaje, extraído de un experimento comentado por Gibbs (1993, 1994), donde las expresiones subrayadas (very tense, making her fume, getting hotter, blew her top) ilustran el esquema metafórico LA IRA ES UN LÍQUIDO CALIENTE DENTRO DE UN CONTENEDOR y preparan el marco cognitivo adecuado para la aparición de la locución metafórica to blow one’s top/ stack (‘reventársele a alguien la chimenea’ -> ‘estallar de

Evaluando al candidato tense:


1) verb: 13 (*)
3) aspect: 9 (*)
8) marker: 5 (*)
9) examples: 5
11) present : 4
12) learners: 4 (*)
15) auxiliary: 4 (*)
16) verbs: 4 (*)
19) sentence: 4 (*)
20) perfect: 4

tense
Lengua: eng
Frec: 320
Docs: 142
Nombre propio: 2 / 320 = 0%
Coocurrencias con glosario: 7
Puntaje: 7.733 = (7 + (1+5.83289001416474) / (1+8.3264294871223)));
Candidato aceptado

Referencias bibliográficas encontradas sobre cada término

(Que existan referencias dedicadas a un término es también indicio de terminologicidad.)
tense
: 10. Dahl, Östen. 1981. On the definition of the telic-atelic (bounded-nonbounded) distinction. En Philip Tedeschi y Annie Zaenen (eds.). Syntax and semantics.Vol. 14. Tense and aspect, 79-90. NewYork:Academic Press.
: 16. Nicolle, S. (2007). The grammaticalization of tense markers: a pragmatic reanalysis. Cahire Chronos, 17, 47-65
: 18. Lardiere, D. (1998a). Case and tense in fossilized steady state grammar. Second Language Research, 14, 1-26.
: 20. Plunkett, Kim y Virginia Marchman. 1996. Learning from a connectionist model of the acquisition of the English past tense. Cognition 61, 3. 299-308.
: 23. Prevost, P., & White, L. (2000). Missing surface inflection or impairment in second language acquisition? Evidence from tense and agreement. Second Language Research, 16, 103-133.
: 23. Ragnarsdottir, Hrafnhildur; Hanne Gran Simonsen y Kim Plunkett. 1999. The acquisition of past tense morphology in Icelandic and Norwegian children: An experimental study. Journal of Child Language 26, 3. 577-618.
: 27. Prévost, Philippe y Lydia white. 2000. Missing surface inflection or impairment in second language acquisition? Evidence from tense and agreement. Second Language Research 16. 103-33.
: 34. Salager-Meyer, F. (1992). A text-type and move analysis study of verb tense and modality distribution in medical English abstracts. English for Specific Purposes, 11(2), 93-113.
: 36. Leung, Y.-k. I. (2005). Second versus third language acquisition of tense agreement in French by Vietnamese monolinguals and Cantonese-English bilinguals. Bilingualism: Language Cognition, 8, 39-61.
: 6. Schiffrin, D. (1981). Tense variation in narrative. Language, 58(1), 45-62.
: Arche, M. (2006). Individuals in time; tense, aspect and the individual/stage distinction. Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
: Assmann, A. (2012). Switch-Reference as Interclausal Tense Agreement: Evidence from Quechua. En P. Weisser (ed.), Papers on Switch-Reference Linguistische Arbeits Berichte (vol. 89, pp. 41-82). Leipzig: Universität Leipzig.
: Bardovi, Kathleen. (1994). "Anecdote or evidence? Evaluating support for hypotheses concerning the development of tense and aspect". En Tarone, Gass y Cohen (Eds.), Research Methodology in SLA (pp. 41-60). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
: Bardovi-Harlig, K. & Reynolds, D.W. (1995). The role of lexical aspect in the acquisition of tense and aspect. TESOL Quarterly, 29, 107-131.
: Bardovi-Harlig, K. (1992). The telling a tale: Discourse structure and tense use in learners’ narratives. Pragmatics and Language Learning, 3, 144-161.
: Bardovi-Harlig, K. (2000). Tense and aspect in second language acquisition: Form, meaning, and use. Oxford: Blackwell.
: Bel, A. (2002). Early Verbs and the Acquisition of Tense in Spanish and Catalan. En J. Liceras & A. Pérez-Leroux (Eds.) The Acquisition of Spanish Morphosyntax: the L1/L2 Connection (pp.1-31). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
: Bennett Michael y Barbara Partee. 1972. Towards the logic of tense and aspect in English. Bloomington: Indiana University Linguistics Club.
: Bertinetto, P.M. & Lenci, A. (2012). Habituality, pluractionality and imperfectivity. En R. I. Binnick (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of tense and aspect (pp. 852-880). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
: Bertinetto, Pier Marco y Denis Delfitto. 2000. Aspect vs. Actionality: why they should be kept apart, en Osten Dahl (ed.), Tense and aspect in the languages of Europe, Mouton de Gruyter: 189-225
: Bielak, John y Pawlak, Miroslav. (2013). Applying Cognitive Grammar in the foreign language classroom: Teaching English tense and aspect. Berlin: Springer Science & Business Media.
: Binnick, R. (1991). Time and the verb. A guide to tense and aspect. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
: Bosque, Ignacio y Esther Torrego. 1995. On Spanish HABER and Tense, Lan gues et Gram maire, 1: 13-29.
: Bull, William E. 1960. Time, Tense and the Verb: a Study in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics, with particular attention to Spanish, Berkeley, University of California Press.
: Bybee, J. L.,& Pagliuca, W. (1994) The evolution of grammar: Tense, aspect and Modality in the Languages of the world. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
: Carlson, G. (2011). Habitual and generic aspect. En R. I. Binnick (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of tense and aspect (pp. 828-852). Oxford: Oxford University Press .
: Carreiras, M., Carriedo, N., Alonso, M.A., & Fernandez, A. (1997). The role of verbal tense and verbal aspect in the foregrounding of information in reading. Memory & Cognition, 23, 438-446.
: Chappell, V., & Rodby, J. (1983). Verb Tense and ESL Composition: A Discourse-Level Approach. TESOL, 82, 309-320.
: Comrie, B. (1981). On Reichenbach's Aproach to Tense. En: R. A. Hendrick, C. S. Masek & M. F. Miller (Eds.). Papers from the Seventeenth Regional Meeting (pp. 24-30). Chicago: Chicago Linguistic Society.
: Comrie, B. (1985). Tense. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
: Dahl, O. (1985). Tense and aspect systems. Oxford: Blackwell.
: Dahl, Östen y Eva Hedin. 2000. Current relevance and event reference, en Östen Dahl (ed.), Tense and aspect in the languages of Europe, Berlin, Mouton de Gruyter: 385-401.
: Dahl, Östen. 1985. Tense and Aspect Systems, London, Blackwell.
: Dawei, W., Jinbo, X. & Heping, W. (2016). The English past tense debate in the Chinese EFL learners’ mind: A masked priming study. Chinese Journal of Applied Linguistics, 39(2), 185-198.
: De Swart, H. (2000). Tense, aspect and coercion in a cross-linguistic perspective. EnProceedings of the Berkeley Formal Grammar conference. University of California, Berkeley, USA.
: Demirdache, Hamida y Oana Lungu. 2008. Sequence of Tense in (French) Child Language, Linguistic Variation Yearbook, 8: 101-130.
: Demirdache, Hamida y Oana Lungu. 2011. Zero-tense vs indexical construals of the present in French L1, en R. Musan y M. Rathert (eds.), Tense across Languages, Berlin, Mouton De Gruyter: 233-256.
: Domínguez, Laura, Tracy, Nicole, Arche, María, Mitchel, Rosamond y Miles Florence. (2013). The role of dynamic contrasts in the L2 acquisition of Spanish past tense morphology. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition. 16 (3), pp. 558-577.
: Ellis, Loewen, and Erlam (2006) investigated the differential effects of recasts and metalinguistic feedback on the acquisition of the regular past tense in English and found that metalinguistic feedback was overall more effective than recasts.
: Fridman-Mintz, B. (2005). Tense and aspect inflections in Mexican Sign Language verbs (Tesis de doctorado). Georgetown University.
: Givón, Talmy. 1993. Verbal Inflections: Tense, Aspect, Modality and Negation, em English Grammar: a functional-based introduction. V. I e II, Amsterdam, John Benjamins Publishing Co.: 147-212.
: González, Paz. (2013). "Research Design: A two-way predicational system is better than a four-way approach". En Salaberry y Comajoan (Eds). Research Design and methodology in Studies on L2 Tense and Aspect (pp. 159-186). Amsterdam: Mouton de Gruyter.
: Grinstead, J., McCurly, D., Pratt, T., Obregon, P. & Flores, B. (2013). The semantics of the tense deficit in child Spanich SL. Ohio: John Benjamins.
: Han, Z. (2002). A study of the impact of recasts on tense consistency in L2 output. TESOL Quarterly, 36, 543-572.
: Hedin, Eva. 2000. "The type-referring function of the Imperfective". En Osten Dahl (ed.) Tense and aspect in the languages of Europe. Berlín: Mouton de Gruyter.
: Hintz, D. (2007). Past Tense Forms and Their Functions in South Conchucos Quechua: Time, Evidentiality, Discourse Structure, and Affect. Santa Bárbara: Universidad de California.
: Housen, A. (1994). Tense and aspect in second language acquisition: The Dutch interlanguage of a native speaker of English. En C. Vet & C. Vetters (Eds.), Tense and Aspect in Discourse (pp. 257-292). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
: Howard, R. (1988). Talking about the Past. Tense and Testimonials in Quechua Narrative Discourse. Amerindia, 13, 125-155.
: In Italian, SVO, VOS, and OVS orders are allowed in conversational speech, and VSO is permitted in written prose. In support of this argument, Vigliocco et al., (1995) present the following examples of the past tense formation in Italian:
: Kamp, H. & Rhorer, C. (1983). Tense in texts. En R. Bäuerle (Ed.), Meaning, use, and interpretation of language (pp. 250-269). Berlin: de Gruyter.
: Labeau, E. & Saddour, I. (Eds.) (2012). Tense, aspect and mood in first and second language acquisition. Amsterdam: Rodopi.
: López Ortega, N. (2000). Tense, aspect, and narrative structure in Spanish as a second language. Hispania, 83(3), 488-502.
: McCawley, J. (1971). Tense and time reference in English. En C. Fillmore & D. Langendoen (Eds.), Studies in Linguistic Semantics (pp. 97-114). Nueva York: Holt, Rinehart y Winston.
: McClelland, J. & Patterson, K. (2002). Rules or Connections in Past Tense Inflections: What does the Evidence Rule Out?. Trends in Cognitive Science, 6(11), 465-472
: Meteyard, L., Price, C., Woollams, A. & Aydelott, J. (2013). Lesions impairing regular versus irregular past tense production. Neuroimage Clin, 14(3), 438-449
: Muysken, P. (2008). Nominal Tense. Time for Further Whorfian Adventures? Commentary on Casasanto. Language Learning, 58(suppI), 81-88. [198]https://doi.org/10.IIII/j.I467-9922.2008.00463.X
: Newman, A., Ullman, M., Pancheva, R., Waligura, D. & Neville, H. (2007). An ERP study of regular and irregular English past tense inflection. Neuroimage, 34, 435-445
: Nordlinger, R., & Sadler, L. (2004). Nominal Tense in Cross-linguistic Perspective. Language, 80(4), 776-806. [201]https://doi.org/10.1353/lan.2004.0219
: Paradis, Johanne y Martha Crago. 2000. Tense and temporality: A comparison between children learning a second language and children with SLI, Journal of Speech, Language and Hearing Research, 43: 834-847.
: Pfau, R., Steinbach, M., y Woll, B. (2012). Tense, aspect and modality. En R. Pfau, M. Steinbach y B. Woll (Eds.), Sign Language: An International Handbook (pp. 186-204). Doi: 10.1515/9783110261325.186.
: Poplack, Shana y Tagliamonte, Sali A. (2001)African American English in the diaspora: tense and aspect. Malden: Blackwell Publishers.
: Salaberry, R. M. & Comajoan, Ll. (Eds.) (2013). Research desgin and methodology in studies on L2 tense and aspect. Boston/Berlín: De Gruyter Mouton.
: Salaberry, R. M. (1999). The development of past tense verbal morphology in classroom L2 Spanish. Applied Linguistics, 20, 151-178.
: Salaberry, R. M. (2011). Assessing the effect of Lexical Aspect and Grounding on the Acquisition of L2 Spanish Paste Tense Morphology. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 4(2), 184-202.
: Salaberry, R. M. (2018). Advanced Conceptualizations of Tense and Aspect in L2 Acquisition. En P. A. Malovrh & A. G.Benati (Eds.), The Handbook of Advanced Proficiency in Second Language Acquisition (pp. 361-380). Oxford: John Wiley.
: Salaberry, Rafael. (2000). The development of past tense morphology in L2 Spanish. Studies in Bilingualism, 22. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins .
: Salager-Meyer, F. (1992). A text-type and move analysis of verb tense and modality distribution in medical English abstracts. English for Specific Purposes, 11(2), 93-115.
: Silva-Corvalán, Carmen 1983. Tense and aspect in oral Spanish narrative: Context and meaning. Language. 59, 4, 760-780. [83]https://doi.org/10.2307/413372.
: Squartini, M., & Bertinetto, P. M. (2000). The Simple and Compound Past in Romance Languages. En O. Dahl (ed.), Tense and Aspect in the Languages of Europe. Empirical Approaches to Language Tipology (pp. 403-439). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
: Stowell, Tim. 1982. The tense of infinitives, Linguistic Inquiry , 13: 561-570.
: Tonhauser, J. (2008). Defining Crosslinguistic Categories: The Case of Nominal Tense (Reply to Nordlinger and Sadler). Language, 84(2), 332-342. [210]https://doi.org/10.1353/lan.0.0017
: Tseng, F. (2011). Analyses of Move Structure and Verb Tense of Research Article Abstracts in Applied Linguistics. International Journal of English Linguistics, 1(2), 27-39. doi: 10.5539/ijel.v1n2p27.
: Weinrich, M., Boser, K. & McCall, D. (1999). Representation of Linguistic Rules in the Brain: Evidence from Training an Aphasic Patient to Produce Past Tense Verb Morphology. Brain and Language , 70, 144-158. doi: 10.1006/brln.1999.2141
: Wurmbrand, Susi. 2014. Tense and aspect in English infinitives, Linguistic Inquiry , 45: 403-447.
: Yang, Y., & Lyster, R. (2010). Effects of form-focused practice and feedback on Chinese EFL learners' acquisition of regular and irregular past tense forms. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 32(2), 235-263.
: [103]Bybee[104], Joan, Revere Perkins y William Pagliuca. 1994. The Evolution of Grammar. Tense, Aspect, and Modality in The Languages of the World, Chicago/ London, The University of Chicago Press.
: [218]Friedmann, Na’ama e Yosef Grodzinsky. 1997. Tense and agreement in agrammatic production: pruning in the syntactic tree, Brain and Language, 56: 397-425.
: ____________. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Tense and Aspect, New York, Oxford University Press.
: have a dual function: they can mean the opposite of a marked term, but they can also mean the absence of signalization of the marked term. An example from tense that comes from Battistella (1990, pp. 3-4) is given below.