temout/ling

/LING

Update: February 24, 2023 The new version of Termout.org is now online, so this web site is now obsolete and will soon be dismantled.

Lista de candidatos sometidos a examen:
1) word (*)
(*) Términos presentes en el nuestro glosario de lingüística

1
paper CL_LiteraturayLingüísticatxt71 - : When dealing with semantic analysis, the researcher can proceed from different angles and perspectives, such as from the level of the word to more complex units of analysis in semantics: the sentence, utterance, proposition and text .

2
paper CL_LiteraturayLingüísticatxt591 - : As this program did not recognize apostrophes in the Saxon genitive and contractions or accent marks in the Spanish words, we removed the extra types that this software had introduced and did a manual count of them eliminating forms that did not exist (e.g. the letter d from contractions like you'd which appeared alone. In this case you'd was replaced by you would or you had depending on the context; in the Spanish word aquí the program did not recognize the stress and gave two forms: aqu- and -i . Therefore, the final -iwhich appeared alone was eliminated and added to aqu-). Afterwards, a manual recount of the Spanish terms was done.

3
paper CL_LiteraturayLingüísticatxt591 - : Apart from inter- and intra-sentential Cs, the type most frequently used throughout ^[29]Díaz's story (2012), and always by Yunior as narrator, is tag-switching (Poplack, “Code switching.” 918). Besides the most frequent family terms Papi and Mami, there are 9 remaining words: *guaguas (*indicates Dominicanism ), merengue, barrio, *zángano, *Malecón (capital letters due to original spelling), gringo, gringos, *per- nil and *moro. Most of these Spanish words have the function of transmitting longing for what the family has left in the Dominican Repub- lic; for example: Its food (*pernil and *moro), its music (merengue), its lifestyle (* Malecón and * guaguas), and some typical insults (* zángano), among others. Particularly, the word zángano, often naming a lazy or even violent person, is employed by Yunior to describe his father's be- havior. The Spanish word Invierno (winter in English and with a capital letter like the original spelling) is found just once, as the title of the story, the

4
paper CL_LiteraturayLingüísticatxt369 - : Keywords: Written word, digital communication, Web, text, mass media .

5
paper CL_LiteraturayLingüísticatxt495 - : Focalization with and without influence on argument structure in word formation: evidence from some ancient Indo-European languages

6
paper CL_LiteraturayLingüísticatxt437 - : Keywords: Nationalisms, Word and Image, visual culture, Satirical Press, Transnational Studies .

7
paper CL_LiteraturayLingüísticatxt317 - : This study examines the active and productive process of word classes changing in Mapudungun through derivation processes; that word formation process consists of a verbal lexeme, noun, adjective, or adverb linked to a derivational suffix. This is a descriptive study which follows the typological perspective of word class formation. The hypothesis establishes that words in mapuche language, mainly the open classes, under go certain morphological and syntactic processes that enable the change of word classes in either three ways: the intervention of some derivational suffix, polysemic properties of derivational suffixes, or the change of word order . While the most productive processes of word formation often are composition and derivation; due to length reasons this article will focus on the derivation process only.

8
paper CL_LiteraturayLingüísticatxt317 - : Keywords: typology, word classes, derivation process .

9
paper CL_LiteraturayLingüísticatxt445 - : Keywords: Lexical processing, word reading, school, age .

10
paper CL_LiteraturayLingüísticatxt286 - : Closely related with this is the strategy of paying attention. In effect, both subjects evince a strong sense of metacognition, which manifests itself in various ways/strategies. As a way of illustration, subject 1 remarks: 'when I watch television, I pay particular attention to pronunciation and lexis; I see [phonetic] symbols in my head. The same happens when I hear a word: I visualise its phonetic transcription and then I practise it until I feel I get it right' . In a similar vein, when asked to give advice on how to improve English pronunciation, wherein the assumption is that such advice reflects the subject's own strategies, subject 1 suggests 'practising a great deal, first in isolation and then at sentence level; the sentence should be practised in smaller chunks, until you get the whole sentence right'. Subject 2 suggests using the pronunciation dictionary, contextualising the pronunciation found (and intensively practised as mentioned earlier), using and practising the

11
paper CL_LiteraturayLingüísticatxt454 - : Diamela Eltit is recognized for a challenging prose style that explores those vast social territories that she calls “zonas de dolor”. Fuerzas Especiales (2013) represents these zones as the consequence of the aspects of neoliberalism that endanger the life of the planet: the extreme militarization of entire populations, the accumulation of arms and capital and the bond between technology and war. Its text simultaneously references the written word, printed page, and computer screen, which all reflect the dilemma of our time: witnessing the end of the world as we know it . In Fuerzas Especiales capital not only determines social relations, consumer habits and fashions, but also a position with respect to fiction and literature. This position creates the possibility of “selfie” and “occupation” literatures, in which music functions as both poetic expressions and a technology of subjection.

12
paper CL_LiteraturayLingüísticatxt408 - : Why should the word ekphrasis be used to write such a history? ...Why not leave it with the ancient Greek rhetoricians who invented it? My answer to this question is that we have no other word for the mode of literature that ekphrasis designates: for a mode of literature whose complexity and vitality -not to mention its astonishing longevity- entitle it to full and widespread recognition (2 ).

13
paper CO_ColombianAppliedLinguisticsJournaltxt131 - : Pennycook takes this argument further by asserting that EIL does nothing but reify these myths. He criticizes perspectives such as Word Englishes and EIL because, according to him, they are inclusionary only in appearance, since they perpetuate the idea of monolithic language ideologies, normally attributed to imperialistic endeavors, only that they do so at the nationalistic level. He signals that the Word Englishes perspective does not provide room for intra-national variation. In general, he calls for a demythologization of English that involves rejection of the WE and EIL paradigms. In his own words:

14
paper CO_ColombianAppliedLinguisticsJournaltxt104 - : In order to explore any database and to retrieve information, researchers use research phrases which are syntactically constructed using Boolean operators. The original dataset was approached using a combination of the following keywords: "L2, second language, inglés, English, discourse, discurso" . The results implied a cleaning up phase as the 2000 original references qualified as being tagged by the word 'discourse'. References dealing with other subject areas (e.g. media studies) different from general education were eliminated. References related to education in combination with specific school subjects (e.g. physical education, math, Spanish as mother tongue, etc) were also eliminated. The resulting sub-data set amounted 94 references which constituted the actual corpus analyzed in this research profile. [27]Graphic 1 illustrates the types of documents included in the dataset analyzed.

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paper CO_ColombianAppliedLinguisticsJournaltxt60 - : Juana's statement that she did not ask as many questions as Arturo when reading with Natalia was contradicted by the data. As a matter of fact, Juana asked many questions to Natalia, but her questions were of a different nature than Arturo's. Juana's questions revolved around the meaning of words and accurate punctuation. Often, Juana explained the meaning of a word or expanded Natalia's definition of a word by explaining the use of the word in different situations. Juana's emphases on word meaning and punctuation are illustrated by the following examples, where they are reading a booklet with a summarized version of the fairy tale "Cenicienta":

16
paper CO_ColombianAppliedLinguisticsJournaltxt152 - : Nevertheless, there is no consensus on a single term to name borrowed words. For example, some authors makeadistinction between 'loanword' and 'foreign word,' the former used as a term for naturalized foreign items, i.e. those that areadapted to the phonologicaland morphological systemsof the target language, and the latterfor non-naturalized items, i.e.thosethat are adoptedin an unmodified form (Abraham, 1981; Cardona, 1991; Fuentes, Gerding, Pecchi, Kotz, & Cañete, 2009; García, 1989; Lázaro, 1983). In fact, loanwordsmay show different degrees of adaptation to the target language: from a zero-assimilation degree (non-adapted loanwords ),to almost full assimilation, for ifadaptation were complete, the item would no longer be a loanword (Márquez, 2006).

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paper CO_ColombianAppliedLinguisticsJournaltxt129 - : As reviewed above, the teaching of vocabulary is more complex than believed. This study was conducted under the assumption that teaching vocabulary represents an important component of language teaching. Therefore, the main purpose of this study is to understand how well pre-service language teachers master basic vocabulary in EFL, and which type of vocabulary test represents more success in word recognition through the following research questions:

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paper CO_ColombianAppliedLinguisticsJournaltxt129 - : The data obtained shows that the following three words were highly recognized in the tests: burger, tuna and cabbage . It is possible that students identified the first word easily as it is an Anglicism in Colombian Spanish; For inferring the meaning of the other words, the participants could have resorted to two strategies: their world knowledge or simply previous meaningful learning, that is, they employed the depth of vocabulary knowledge.

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paper CO_ColombianAppliedLinguisticsJournaltxt196 - : One of the most favored practices employed was using a dictionary to look up the meaning of a word: as many as 10 .5% stated that they often use a dictionary to look up a word, while 38.6% do so sometimes. The other strategy concerning reference materials, that is looking up a word in textbooks, did not rate very high in usage in general, but it did rank higher in usage than the dictionary.

20
paper CO_ColombianAppliedLinguisticsJournaltxt231 - : As mentioned above, our research focuses on lexical neology, or the lexical innovation of speakers. Specifically, we are interested in the effect that the gender variable may have on such lexical innovation. ^[47]Boulanger (1988) writes that in the late 1970s and early 1980s, the word neology could be defined in several different ways:

21
paper CO_ColombianAppliedLinguisticsJournaltxt178 - : Among the endless forms that our EFL learners' attempts employed to boost degree, one was that they also exhibited an effort to step away from the sociolinguistic configurations provided by their Colombian Spanish background, i.e. employing structures whose meaning representations diverged greatly from their own. For example, using the word 'far' to boost degree:

22
paper CO_ColombianAppliedLinguisticsJournaltxt178 - : Even though the students revealed a vast linguistic repertoire in EFL, their sociolinguistic knowledge appears insufficient to read contextual information in order to distinguish the type of linguistic resources, forms, and genres to draw upon for particular contexts and in given genres. Word choice and the configuration of language are contingent to the specificities of the context: There are words that can be used in only a few specific situations as well as some linguistic items that can establish associations only with certain others for specific purposes and in particular settings and situations .

23
paper CO_ColombianAppliedLinguisticsJournaltxt52 - : The first research question of this study proposes to search for insights about writing in EFL. The dictionary defnes insights as follows: "it is a clear understanding of something, or part of something, specially a complicated situation or idea. It is also the ability to understand what people or situations look like." Other synonyms for this word are: knowledge, understanding, comprehension and vision . The second question intends to find the role that feedback played in the experience of writing with blogs. Therefore, I analyzed feedback from two different viewpoints: feedback from Canadian peers and from the teacher. We will try to gain some understanding and knowledge about writing and the role of feedback from this experience with blogs. This research focuses only on the outcomes of the Colombian students as the data was collected from them. I will start with the analysis of the first category named Community of Writers.

24
paper CO_ColombianAppliedLinguisticsJournaltxt244 - : ‘I’m sorry to hear…,’ ‘I’m sorry that…,’ ‘sorry,’ ‘I’m sorry,’ or ‘I’m+ intensifier+ sorry’ (elementary level: 46.9%, intermediate level: 52.3%, and advanced level: 42.3%). The next common semantic formula among the EFL participants was ‘Please accept my condolences’ (elementary level: 27.5%, intermediate level: 24.8%, and advanced level: 20.4%), followed by adjectives like ‘bad,’ ‘terrible,’ ‘sad,’ etc. (elementary level: 13.5%, intermediate level: 12.9%, and advanced level: 18.6%). Also, a few of the EFL learners’ responses contained the word ‘sympathy’ (elementary level: 1 .4%, intermediate level: 3.4%, and advanced level: 3.3%). Finally, a number of the EFL learners’ responses were formulated by the semantic formula ‘I’m sorry for your loss’ (elementary level: 2.3%, intermediate level: 6.5%, and advanced level: 13.6%).

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paper CO_ColombianAppliedLinguisticsJournaltxt222 - : In this regard, Nation (2008) indicates how to train students on how to choose new words to avoid interference; he recommends avoiding combinations of words that are (1) similar in spelling or sound, for example kitchen and chicken, (2) similar in meaning but not exactly the same, for example remind and remember, (3) opposites, for example clean and dirty, and (4) members of a lexical set for example, the days of the week, because "research shows that [learning related words] makes the learning task more difficult" (Nation, 2008, p. 109). Furthermore, he provides guidelines on how to train learners to use word cards which include five basic parts: (1 ) choosing word or phrases and writing them down on cards in order to see how they can be used, (2) going through the cards to explain to learners how to use the cards, (3) checking the words repeatedly to provide frequent opportunities to have contact with them, and (4) motiving students to use the strategy often, for example by allowing them

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paper CO_ColombianAppliedLinguisticsJournaltxt222 - : to work in pairs to test each other and by reporting to the class their success in using the strategy. Thornbury (2004) pinpointed useful activities to help learners use the strategy and encourage the independent use of words: pre-teaching and testing, guess my word, and association with games . Word cards are still quite useful, even in the predominantly computer era, as Nakata (2008) found in his study in which he compared vocabulary learning with word lists, word cards, and computers with 226 Japanese high school students. The results showed no statistically significant difference between computers and word cards and their superiority over lists.

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paper CO_ColombianAppliedLinguisticsJournaltxt222 - : Training on each strategy took three hours for the first material of each module. The first fable of each session of each module was planned to model, demonstrate, and practice the strategy. Then, the students applied the steps of the strategy by themselves. Regarding word cards, the steps were adapted from Nation's (2008) and Thornbury's (2004) instructions:

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paper CO_ColombianAppliedLinguisticsJournaltxt222 - : The strategies of word cards and association with pictures were perceived by the students as easyto- handle and helpful to make the learning process interesting and effective which fostered students' motivation towards their use. As Obringer (2001) indicated with respect to the psychology of learning, "making the learning more fun-or interestingis what makes it more effective" (p. 2). Hence, from the students' viewpoint, strategies can yield positive leaning outcomes when they are fun for them to use. This trait seems to have been achieved in the pedagogical implementation as evidenced in comments of the following type, referring to Word Cards (answers were originally given in Spanish and translated into English by the teacher-researcher): "It's fun and an effective way to learn new words" (Student 2, Question No . 2. First questionnaire. Word Cards). Another student suggests that "it's a practical and didactic method, and I can remember the words easily with the help of the pictures"

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paper CO_ColombianAppliedLinguisticsJournaltxt222 - : The data showed that almost all of these students, who had never used any of the three strategies before, benefited from using memory strategies to learn vocabulary[30] (see Table 3). The strategies were tools that allowed the students to learn, memorize, and recall the meaning of words. Additionally, these strategies helped learners be more aware of the spelling of words as seen in the following comments from the students: "before, I didn't have any idea about how to improve my vocabulary and how to memorize words" (Student 4 . First questionnaire. Word cards), and, "when the teacher or a classmate asks me the meaning of the words, both the image and the spelling come to my mind" (Student 2. Second questionnaire. Word cards and association with pictures).

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paper CO_ColombianAppliedLinguisticsJournaltxt222 - : Each vocabulary strategy helped learners develop different learning skills. Word cards allowed students to rely on their first language to support their vocabulary learning, as said by Student 6: "I used to forget the meaning of the words, but now, thanks to the cards, I can remember their meaning perfectly ."

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paper CO_ColombianAppliedLinguisticsJournaltxt234 - : * P4: How do you pronounce this word: /su:rmam/ ?

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paper CO_ColombianAppliedLinguisticsJournaltxt242 - : Data were collected from the two focus groups with students. [72]Figure 5 shows the most frequent words from the interviews. Surprisingly, the word teacher was the most frequent. This study was carried out with first-year college students and in the focus groups they greatly value the support and guidance of teachers in the correction of their errors. Subsequently, the word error was constantly mentioned by students since they are aware that errors are inevitable and, at the same time, a key stage of the process of learning a second language. Other frequent words are: portfolio, everybody, section, and feedback . All of these terms played an important role in the implementation of a new teaching and learning strategy comprising corrective feedback and portfolio keeping.

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paper CO_ColombianAppliedLinguisticsJournaltxt282 - : Word Selection: Obtaining the stimuli for the creation of the cards was crucial to complete the card sorting . For this, the initial phase of the study included semi-structured interviews held with five university EFL education students who were completing or who had completed their student teaching practicum. With the descriptive coding of the interview transcripts, 33 codes which represented different beliefs, values and concepts about the teaching and learning of English were selected to be utilised in the field study card-sorting activity.

34
paper CO_ColombianAppliedLinguisticsJournaltxt144 - : Examining the order and position of words in the two verses tells us that the writer is asking questions about something or somebody having left the place, implying for the absence of people. This gets clear from the third component of the word "wood" and the third component of the word "house" because when woods are not used by somebody they are free and useless signifying the absence of life. The same thing for the word "house": being uninhabited equals empty or no people in . However, what makes this meaning more likely to accept is the whole poem's significant unit or semantic scope as the writer raises questions falling in the scope of unsaid death and sadness.

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paper CO_ColombianAppliedLinguisticsJournaltxt144 - : Every word is a complex of meaning with one and/or several components. The signaled words are given their components as follows:

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paper CO_ColombianAppliedLinguisticsJournaltxt144 - : The first verse contains a thematic introduction situating from the beginning Adonis' relation with Venus. The word "studded" has two components: 1 ) to be decorated with small raised pieces of metal and 2) to have a lot of something on it. The words "bridle", "ragged" and "bough" have markers relating to the second component of the word "studded", because the word "bridle" means putting something around the horse's head for controlling him. This would set the way for the lexical interaction. The poem can mean that the man is not straight and needs to be controlled like a horse. This meaning is reinforced by the meaning that the words "ragged" and "bough" mean in relation to the first component of the word "bridle", all showing that the context is not straight. The word "fasten" has two components which do not seem to interact positively with the other components. We give it two epistemic components: either fastening for something good or for something bad. The second component is to

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paper CO_ColombianAppliedLinguisticsJournaltxt144 - : "Deep", "all" and "dream" refer to something hard to achieve. This is meant by component three of the word "deep": "Far distant in time or space" ; and,

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paper CO_ColombianAppliedLinguisticsJournaltxt144 - : The componential analysis of literary meaning too, in component three of the word "dream": "A wild fancy or hope" ; as well as component three of the word "all": "Being the utmost possible of". The third verse says in unrelated way with the previous words that it is possible and impossible to meet by April because "anyone" refers to the possibility of meeting and "no one" to its impossibility. Earth refers to giving life to something like plants and it is in the poem meaning "big joy". All these attributes are confirmed in the last verse: "wish by spirit" means an inside and yet hardto-achieve wish as deep as it comes from the person's spirit, possible to achieve "if" the answer is yes.

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paper CO_ColombianAppliedLinguisticsJournaltxt46 - : It is a fact that texts come in different formats and make use of different modes of communication. We are living an explosion of the digital era in which the notion of text has changed dramatically. We are certain that as linguists or applied linguists, we have been interested in visualizing and analysing texts as a purely linguistic phenomenon. However, these days texts can no longer be thought of or seen as such since most of the them combine visual and written modes of representing information. In this regard, Jewitt (2005: 317) states: "Until recently the dominance of image over word was a feature of texts, on screen and off screen: there are more images on screen and images are increasingly given a designed prominence over the written elements ." Along the same lines, she agrees that "Despite the multimodal character of screen-based texts and the process of text design and production, reading educational policy and assessment continue to promote a linguistic view of literacy and linear

40
paper CO_ColombianAppliedLinguisticsJournaltxt108 - : Edward talks about the exercises, the tasks, the interviews as regular activities that are carried out in class, and he assesses them as part of a different world, not a real world; in his own words (Modo clase de inglés... y modo mundo real) Edward's understanding of language is revealing in that he does not consider EFL as a way to personal expression; he actually does not perceive an existential issue in the language learning process since he is detaching his sexual identity from his self in the EFL setting. He does not understand language to convey meaning, not even to do activities in a meaningful way, but just as an instrument to be used to develop exercises in the classroom; he expresses a pure instrumental vision of EFL. More importantly, he brings up a computer language metaphor by using the word "mode": "Real life mode and EFL classroom mode" . He invokes this metaphor to explain the way he behaves in these two settings; I understand this as " a discourse of vulnerability" (Cox &

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paper CO_ColombianAppliedLinguisticsJournaltxt82 - : In an activity called "writing time", a child expressed what she observed in a set of five wordless related pictures using a word bank displayed on the board as:

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paper CO_ColombianAppliedLinguisticsJournaltxt243 - : The concept of intelligibility has been widely debated by language teachers and researchers. ^[30]Kenworthy (1987) sees intelligibility as being understood by a listener at a given time in each situation. This may suggest that understanding every word a speaker produces guarantees understanding the message he intends to convey . Later, ^[31]Smith (1992) defined intelligibility as the ability to make one’s words and utterances recognized by others thanks to the appropriate production of its sounds. However, this definition seemed insufficient in the context of this study given that the learners’ words and utterances were generally well pronounced and therefore recognized by others, yet their messages were not clearly conveyed; they were not entirely intelligible.

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paper CO_ColombianAppliedLinguisticsJournaltxt42 - : ^[59]9The researchers conducted a simple concordance corpus analysis of the two terms in the Collins Wordbanks Online and confirmed that this is indeed the case. The Collins Wordbanks Online ([60]http://www .collins.co.uk/Corpus/CorpusSearch.aspx) is a 56 million word sample corpus of contemporary written and spoken language from the Cobuild corpus, also known as the Bank of English, which itself contains over 500 million words of modern British and American English.

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paper CO_CuadernosdeLingüísticaHispánicatxt152 - : Spanish and Korean differ in many respects, including word order and morphology (Spanish: fusional, Korean: agglutinative ) (e.g. ^[31]Kwon, 2012; ^[32]Bosque & Demonte, 1999). To better understand the grammatical constraints on code-switching, we investigate (a) whether the linguistic constraints proposed for Spanish-English code-switching extend to Spanish-Korean and (b) whether Spanish-Korean code-switching exhibits other kinds of constraints beyond those proposed for Spanish-English, and (c) if so, how they are related to the typological differences between the languages. Our empirical aim is to develop a corpus of code-switching for a language pair that has not been systematically investigated in prior code-switching work. This paper is organized as follows: Section 2 reviews definitions and different types of CS. Sections 3 and 4 present relevant previous work on CS and state our research questions. In Section 5, we present naturalistic Spanish-Korean CS examples and discuss what they

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paper CO_CuadernosdeLingüísticaHispánicatxt152 - : The focus of our paper is to present empirical data illustrating how previously proposed constraints are violated in Spanish-Korean CS. Although we do not provide an in-depth analysis of what licenses these violations, we would like to suggest that these differences may be attributed to language family membership and associated typological differences, such as head position. For instance, typologically, Korean is a head-final language that belongs to the Koreanic family, whereas Spanish and English are Indo-European languages and typically categorized as head-initial. When the languages being switched have the same head-initial syntax - like Spanish and English - the word order does not change drastically since they languages have the same head directionality. However, when a head-initial and head-final language like Spanish and Korean are mixed, the word order becomes more flexible in code-switched utterances, because both types of constructions can be formed: Spanish can adapt to the

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paper CO_CuadernosdeLingüísticaHispánicatxt118 - : Table 1 Co-Texts of the Word: "Post-conflict"

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paper CO_CuadernosdeLingüísticaHispánicatxt151 - : Five instructors' comments revealed they assigned this role, especially in regards to vocabulary. For instance, Instructor 19 said: "I may ask them if they say something differently." This role was also identified twice during the class observations. In the first instance, Instructor 20 asked a HL about a grammatical form: "¿cuándo usas ir a y cuándo usas elfuturo? - tr. When do you use going to vs. future?" In the second instance, Instructor 13 asked a HL how a Spanish word was said in his heritage variety: "¿cómo se dice helado en México ? - tr. How do you say ice cream in Mexico?"

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paper CO_FormayFuncióntxt276 - : The article aims to describe an innovative process of word formation in Spanish from Río de la Plata (Argentina), where the accusative feminine pronoun la can be linked to inherited and neological stems, especially to four types of verbal stems: non-derivative (colgarla ), derived from nouns and adjectives (gordearla), lexical borrowings (flopearla), and proper names (berlinearla). By using our own data base containing examples found in social networks, we intend to establish whether this process is halfway between morphology and syntax because it shares features of both levels, or whether it is located in one of them. The analysis of the reference, idiomaticity, regularity, and productivity of the pronoun la and the new verbal units show that it is actually in an in-between state, for one can postulate two different types of creation that correspond to two formation instances: the first is more syntactic and the second has features of morphological evolution.

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paper CO_FormayFuncióntxt276 - : Keywords: clitics ; Spanish from Río de la Plata; word formation; verbal phrases; morphosyntax

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paper CO_FormayFuncióntxt28 - : Keywords: intercultural, alien word, phonic image, anagram

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paper CO_FormayFuncióntxt288 - : Section 2 briefly explains the background of my project and my methodology. Section 3 provides the phonology of the language, including which phonemes are borrowed from Spanish and Inga. Section 4 discusses Kamsá’s three main word classes: nouns, verbs, and adjectives . Section 5 is nominal morphology and Section 6 is verbal morphology. Section 7 shows the alignment of the language and Section 8 discusses a few syntactic phenomena. Section 9 concludes the article.

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paper CO_FormayFuncióntxt241 - : This paper examines the polysemy of the Bribri postposition «ã» from the perspective of cognitive linguistics. It suggests a semantic network in which all the senses of the word are directly or indirectly linked to one central meaning: the static spatial location of a trajector within a landmark conceived as a three-dimensional container (inessive ). Several semantic extensions emerge from this proto-scene through metaphors, metonymies, and subjectification, thus creating different continua of associated meanings. In this manner, the primary sense extends to both the temporal domain and the dynamic spatial sub-domain. Likewise, a series of uses of «ã» as a marker of the more abstract semantic roles of recipient, addressee, and beneficiary derives from the function of the metaspatial marker.

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paper CO_FormayFuncióntxt2 - : HINO, Y., & LUPKER, S. J. (1998). “The effects of word frequency for Japanese Kana and Kanji words in naming and lexical decision: Can the dual-route model save the lexical-selection account ?” En Journal of experimental psychology: human perception and performance, 24, 1431-1453. [ [81]Links ]

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paper CO_FormayFuncióntxt199 - : Bueno vamos a meternos a Microsoft porque me parece que Word tiene más elementos para decorar y esto me interesa: la presentación [ ...] Vamos a ver los tipos de diseños de páginas y hora sí voy a mirar el color de la página y los bordes. Entonces vamos a escoger una letra [...] Voy a utilizar más que todo el color morado y azul y voy a pegar unas flores [...] Bueno voy a personalizar nuevamente nuestro proyecto [...] Entonces aquí me voy a meter a Google y voy a buscar imágenes para que quede más completo [...] Bueno yo decidí poner una imagen o una animación porque yo quiero dar una imagen sobre lo que escribí, para que se vea visualmente relacionado con el tema. (Fragmento del protocolo de Esmeralda)

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paper CO_FormayFuncióntxt263 - : Keywords: word classes ; morphosyntax; methodology; field work; Yuhup

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paper CO_FormayFuncióntxt278 - : Saito, Y., & Saito, K. (2017). Differential effects of instruction on the development of second language comprehensibility, word stress, rhythm, and intonation: the case of inexperienced Japanese EFL learners . Language Teaching Research, 27(5), 589-608. doi: [222]https://doi.org/10.1177/13621688166431111 [ [223]Links ]

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paper CO_FormayFuncióntxt270 - : Lozano, C., & Mendikoetxea, A. (2007). Learner Corpora and the Acquisition of Word Order: A Study of the Production of Verb-Subject Structures in L2 English . En M. Davies, P. Rayson, S. Hunston & P. Danielsson (eds.), Proceedings of the Corpus Linguistics Conference. Birmingham: University of Birmingham. [ [165]Links ]

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paper CO_FormayFuncióntxt255 - : En cuanto a los términos más empleados en toda la obra de Wagner, sacando de lado preposiciones, determinantes, conjunciones, etc., pudimos obtener en la word list de AntConc la [86]Tabla 2:

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paper CO_FormayFuncióntxt46 - : Keywords: postmodernism, linguistic turn, language in use, the plasticity of the word, contextualism, sense and inference .

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paper CO_FormayFuncióntxt105 - : It is clear that Rabassa, in discussing the translational problem posed by the title, weighed up not only the original author's intent but also the TL readers' effect. This can also be seen in his analysis of another word of the title that turned out to be troublesome: 'soledad':

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paper CO_FormayFuncióntxt105 - : In the next example, Rabassa and Mayer-Clason, the German translator, maintained the original word reales, which evokes the Spanish historical heritage depicted in some parts of the novel. The other translators adapted the word to the corresponding grammatical plural forms in their languages:

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paper CO_FormayFuncióntxt79 - : De otra parte, lo que aquí se ha discutido es apenas una simplificación de una situación que es verdaderamente más compleja. Diferenciar la interferencia lingüística de fenómenos generales del contacto, no se reduce a distinguir casos de inconcordancia lingüística de otros fenómenos, pues las fronteras entre estos son difusas. Robert B. Le Page lo expresa en el título de su artículo: "'You can never tell where a word comes from': language contact in a diffuse setting" (1992, pp . 71-101). Sobre los sustratos e interferencias, el autor referido (Le Page, 1992, p. 72) expresa en forma decisiva tal dificultad, indicando que no es posible determinarlos: "It is really not posible to ascribe all linguistic features to any particular named system".

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paper CO_Lenguajetxt86 - : /s/ variation in word juncture in Caleño Spanish: a sociolinguistic insight

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paper CO_Lenguajetxt86 - : /s/ variation in word juncture in Caleño Spanish: a sociolinguistic insight The glottal pronunciation of the syllable initial /s/ is an identitary characteristic of the Spanish spoken in Cali, Colombia, as claimed by the oral tradition of the speakers of this variant (Ramírez & Almira, 2011 ). This pronunciation has permeated the cultural variety, and therefore, it makes part of the speech community's set of norms. In order to establish the phonological rules that determine /s/ variation, a research study was conducted through the analysis of 10427 tokens, in which /s/ appears in word juncture in spontaneous speech. This article aims at reporting the findings of such a study.

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paper CO_Lenguajetxt86 - : Key words: phonetic variation, phonology, sociolinguistics, word juncture, Caleño Spanish, spontaneous speech .

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paper CO_Lenguajetxt153 - : This article is a description of the underlying morphosyntactic regularities of the Wayunaiki (Arawak (Septentrional): Colombia) pronominal system with a focus on the grammatical roles of pronouns. Based on recent data collected from fieldwork, this analysis proposes three different pronoun paradigms: the first one consists of eight forms (free morphemes) varying in person (first, second and third), number (singular/plural), and in the gender (masculine/feminine) of third person. These forms are used to express the subject and the direct object, and the verbal morphology is the main factor that allows for the interpretation of one of these grammatical functions. The second paradigm consists of bound pronouns that are prefixed to two word classes: to nouns, in which case possession is expressed (specifically, the possessor ), and to a set of prepositions marking the dative and several oblique roles. The third paradigm consists of a set of person markers that express the subject and are

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paper CO_Lenguajetxt149 - : The word look in the first line of the passage means:_________________

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paper CO_Lenguajetxt149 - : The word look in the third line of the passage means: ________________

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paper CO_Lenguajetxt191 - : La presente investigación centró su análisis en los niveles B1 a B2. La población la conformaban 2088 estudiantes universitarios de pregrado de los cuales, 515 estudiantes firmaron el consentimiento para participar en esta investigación. El proceso de escritura se desarrolló durante un curso de 64 horas impartidas en un semestre de 16 semanas. Todos los cursos se desarrollaron como clase-seminarios en los que los estudiantes pudieron entregar sus borradores preliminares para correcciones y luego recibieron comentarios. En los niveles B1, los estudiantes entregaron sus borradores y el trabajo final escrito a mano y posteriormente transcrito a formato MS Word para el correspondiente análisis . En el nivel B2, los borradores y el trabajo final se entregaron en archivos de MS Word, pero los estudiantes no contaban con la opción de correctores automáticos de procesador de textos, que fueron desactivados en el laboratorio de la universidad. Los estudiantes elaboraron los escritos finales

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paper CO_Lenguajetxt191 - : 3. Keep in mind the following Microsoft Word tips:

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paper CO_Íkalatxt51 - : The meaning of a word cannot be expressed in one sentence: The meaning of terminology for technical communication and the translation of technical texts .

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paper CO_Íkalatxt217 - : In word boundaries, ^[508]Salvador (1957) found the following solutions: aspirated /s/ does not appear before words containing /x/ ; /s+voiceless stop/ tends to become an aspiration brought towards the place of articulation of the stop, and the aspiration can be lost and /s/ marked by vowel opening and tensing of the following consonant, as it happens in /s+fricative/ or in /s+affricate/; /sb/, /sd/ and /sg/ behave as in word-internal position; /s+nasal/ results in total loss of aspiration before /m/ and a very nasalised short aspiration before /n/; and /sl/ results in ENT#091;llENT#093; (ENT#091;l:ENT#093;). ^[509]Salvador (1957) believed that /s/ was aspirated in word-internal coda and either aspirated or deleted in word-final position. Some years later, ^[510]Lipski (1986) studied the pronunciation of /s/ in various contexts in Granada and found that /s/ is hardly ever pronounced ENT#091;sENT#093; in coda, but is often pronounced ENT#091;hENT#093; or deleted. ^[511]Alvar (1955a) had also

73
paper CO_Íkalatxt128 - : In addition, participants experienced peer feedback as a subjective process where it was more important to care for their peers than to comment on weaknesses and strengths. The caring performance of participants was key for students to undertake the online peer feedback process since they assumed a responsibility with their peers when commenting and providing feedback. Even though students hold beliefs that show the importance of having the teachers' comments as the last word in the class, they felt more comfortable with their peers as such comments were formative, kind, and a way to release stress that formal evaluations generate: ''It is useful because buddies are patient and are not strict'' (S11, Q ).

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paper CO_Íkalatxt50 - : [2]vol.15 número25 [3]Recursos de contenido basados en estándares: un prerrequisito para la integración de contenido e interoperabilidad de contenido [4]The meaning of a word cannot be expressed in one sentence: The meaning of terminology for technical communication and the translation of technical texts [5] índice de autores [6]índice de materia [7]búsqueda de artículos [8]Home Page [9]lista alfabética de revistas

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paper CO_Íkalatxt291 - : Some terms were changed in the new regulations without changing their definitions. This was the case for desaduanamiento, related to customs clearance procedures and previously known as nacionalización, and derechos e impuestos a la importación, which has to do with the taxes paid during import processes and was previously known as tributos aduaneros. The latter, derechos e impuestos a la importación, began its definition with the same word that begins the term itself: derechos, followed by a list of generic taxes and charges that must be paid . This represents a wide range of possible obligations combined with the complexity of being associated with another branch of the country’s tax regulations, meaning that precision does not provide evidence for the quality of this definition in Decree 390.

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paper CO_Íkalatxt11 - : By contrast, the word whore is translated in two ways in the Spanish translations: ramera in 1955 and puta in 1997 . Rude language tended to be softened in Spain in the 50s, but in the 90s, naturalism was in fashion. Writers tended to show daily life accurately without disguising any detail in spite of the fact that images were too tough. In this aim to reflect reality, swearwords were not censored as they were present in everyday language. Besides this, it is noteworthy that the same word used by Elizabeth to insult Abigail, as seen in example 1, was translated differently in example 2. The translation of the word whore differs depending on the gender of the speaker. Although both examples 1 and 2 have resorted to the same word in the source text to insult the same woman, Abigail, it has been translated differently. The translation changes depending on who utters it. John, as a man, is allowed to refer to Abigail in such terms. On the contrary, Elizabeth, as a woman, is restricted in the

77
paper CO_Íkalatxt249 - : Explain what you do in order to understand an unknown word when you are reading a text:

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paper CO_Íkalatxt249 - : I know that I have learned a new word in English when: (you can mark more than one option )

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paper CO_Íkalatxt67 - : Cuando la unidad del TO no tiene una connotación propia y la paráfrasis pertenece al mismo registro de la unidad original, la pérdida en el TM se da principalmente a nivel de fijación fraseológica, pues no se conserva la imagen del original, como puede observarse en (10) (de boca en boca equivale a as the stories were repeated). No obstante, existe en inglés la UF word of mouth, que conserva la imagen de la unidad en español, además del carácter fraseológico (''word of mouth: n . informal, oral communication'' –diccom–).

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paper CO_Íkalatxt74 - : In all instances where John found unfamiliar words in the text, he focused his attention on the unknown word and got stuck trying to guess its meaning. Even when he attempted to read ahead to use the context, he failed to infer the meaning of the unknown word. The following examples illustrate the way in which John addressed the words ''booked'' and ''crowded'': Example 1:

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paper CO_Íkalatxt74 - : The examples presented above suggest that in general, John's reading lacked monitoring for comprehension. His often quick and unrevised interpretations of the text hinted that John does not often revise his understanding of what he reads. We confirmed this hunch with several examples from his think aloud. A particular example was one in which we asked him to stop and think aloud after he read the word ''spirits'' in the context of drinks. John interpreted ''spirits'' as a Spanish cognate of ''espíritus'' (ghosts), and we wanted to test whether John would be able to revise his first interpretation of ''spirits'' once he noticed words that referred to drinks and liquor in the text. After reading the two statements surrounding the word ''spirits'', which clarified that the word refers to ''drinks'' and not to ''ghosts'', John did not revise his interpretation despite the fact that it did not make sense with the upcoming ideas in the paragraph:

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paper CO_Íkalatxt157 - : This illustrates not only the potential positive impact of CSR on the development of students' metacognition, but also the need for explicit strategy instruction in the language classroom. Students' opinions about their reading performance also give evidence of the benefits of the CSR classroom. As illustrated below, the word "improvement", explicitly stated by students from two different contexts, suggests that the use of fix-up strategies helped them achieve a better understanding of written texts, but most importantly, re-conceptualize how they perceived themselves as EFL readers:

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paper CO_Íkalatxt105 - : Note that if any of the verb forms matches with a word in the text, we define two conditions to stop searching the first particle in the following words of the text: we find a punctuation mark or another verb (in any of its verb forms ). [33]Figure 5 shows the detection process.

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paper CO_Íkalatxt185 - : This term comes from the idea that ''English is seen as the province of the idealized native speaker, something that he or she already possesses and that the outsider imperfectly aspires to'' (Leung, Harris and Rampton, 1997). Therefore, the belief of an idealized native speaker is ingrained on the premise that native speakers are the sole owners of language knowledge, which leads to the notion that people who are native to the language are the ones who have proper word usage and correct pronunciation, as can be seen in the following interview excerpt:

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paper CO_Íkalatxt210 - : Due to the learners' concern about spelling words correctly, they expressed that the revision of lexical items while writing was needed. They stated that, during their writing tasks in English, they confirmed they were not making mistakes in terms of vocabulary spelling in the L2. An example of this was shared by one interviewee: "I revise everything I write by looking in the dictionary" (Participant 05 15:15). Likewise, another learner asserted: "We write and, at the same time, we revise by checking that every word is spelled right" (Participant 18 07:07 ).

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paper MX_ElAnuariodeLetrastxt43 - : Feldhausen, I. y Vanrell, M. D. M. (2014). Prosody, Focus and Word Order in Catalan and Spanish: An Optimality Theoretic Approach . En S. Fuchs, M. Grice, A. Hermes, L. Lancia, y D. Mücke (eds.), 10th International Seminar on Speech Production (ISSP) (pp. 122-125). Colonia: Universidad de Colonia. [ [106]Links ]

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paper MX_ElAnuariodeLetrastxt23 - : Keywords: entry word ; phraseme; contour; contrasting phraseology; Spanish; Croatian

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paper PE_Lexistxt80 - : Keywords: Borges, crucified, master and poet, incarnate Word .

89
paper PE_Lexistxt88 - : Keywords: Aymara, morphology, compounding, compound word, typology .

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paper PE_Lexistxt136 - : Esta sección recoge aquellos términos que, pese a que tienen la apariencia del inglés, no existen con el mismo significado en la lengua inglesa. Pulcini, Furiassi y Rodríguez González los definen como “a word or multi-word unit in the RL made up of English lexical elements but unknown or used with a conspicuously different meaning in English” (2012: 7 ). A este respecto, Campos Pardillos afirma que

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paper PE_Lexistxt112 - : Keywords: Word formation ; lexical morphology; Spanish neologisms; Cortázar

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paper PE_Lexistxt74 - : We speak in linear order; in a sentence, we say some words earlier and others later. Since speaking is correlated with time and time is metaphorically conceptualised in terms of space, it is natural for us to conceptualize language metaphorically in terms of space. Our writing system reinforces this conceptualization (…). We know which word occupies the first position in the sentence, whether two words are close to each other or far apart, whether a word is relatively long or short (2003: 126 ).

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paper UY_ALFALtxt51 - : Key words: locative or temporal adjunct, intransitive verbs, marked word order, topicalization, presentative function, theme

94
paper UY_ALFALtxt152 - : Keywords: Mawetí-Guarani family ; object pronouns; active voice; existential phrases; word class switching

95
paper UY_ALFALtxt64 - : Si tomamos la palabra word cuya traducción es “palabra” encontramos la siguiente información en la obra de Roget:

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paper UY_ALFALtxt88 - : This paper discusses semantic-discursive relations in names of places with the name Itá in Eastern Amazon. It is inserted within the domain of Linguistic research, whose lexicological approach is involved among the other investigations of intercultural relations of litotoponyms in historical and anthropological contexts of the peoples which formed that particular region. The recurrence of the name Itá in denominations of sites in the Eastern Amazon region is related to the geological formation of the area as well to what the word “stone” – in Tupi-Guarani: itá – represents in the lexical and cultural constitution of the peoples forming this region . The selected corpus, deriving from field research in the Gurupi region, located between the states of Pará and Maranhão, were analyzed with respect to their origins and to the toponymic motivation (Dick 1990, 1991), seen as intercultural aspects of the studies of these place names.

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paper UY_ALFALtxt215 - : Keywords: word order ; Semantics; Pragmatics; Mocovi; Toba

98
paper UY_ALFALtxt102 - : [164]Costa, João. 1998. Word Order Variation: A constraint-baised approach, PhD Thesis, Leiden .

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paper UY_ALFALtxt8 - : Keywords: Morphology, Compounding, Derivation, Word Formation, Continuum .

100
paper UY_ALFALtxt8 - : In this paper, we discuss synchronously the status of the following morphological elements, often used in new word formations in Brazilian Portuguese: affixoids (bio-combustível, eco-sustentabilidade ), splinters (choco-tone; sogra-drasta) and borrowed constituents (cyber-café; e-professor). In our description, we observe the extent to which these constituents behave as radicals and in what ways are equivalent to affixes. We intend, thereby, ratify the continuum proposed by Baker [28](2000) and Ralli [29](2007), at same time we show that other morphological units, as well as radicals and affixes, should be part of this scale.

101
paper UY_ALFALtxt8 - : [176]Kenesei, István. 2007. Semiwords and affixoids: the territory between word and affix, Budapeste, Research Institute for Linguistics .

102
paper VE_Letrastxt86 - : Womans word: a look into the poetry of Yolanda Pantin

103
paper VE_Letrastxt50 - : Key words: fictional reality, symbology, psychoanalysis, Word (myth/magic ), Dream.

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paper VE_Letrastxt36 - : No word can be defined by itself, and no word can be defined from its own family of words, unless the related word is separately defined independently of it (Landau, 2001: 158 ).^2

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paper VE_Núcleotxt41 - : Key words: appreciative morphemes, word formation, inflection, morphology .

106
paper corpusLogostxt54 - : Wilshire, C. (2008). Cognitive neuropsychological approaches to word production in aphasia: Beyond boxes and arrows . Aphasiology , 22, 1019-1053. doi: 10.1080/02687030701536016 [ [112]Links ]

107
paper corpusLogostxt7 - : Keywords: metaphor - concept - word - statement - knowledge .

108
paper corpusLogostxt1 - : The Word Marico as a New Antipolite Nominal Form of Address Among Young College Students from Caracas: A Study from the Speakers’ Perspective

109
paper corpusRLAtxt167 - : ^[54]Knoch et al. (2015) examined undergraduate students' L2 (ESL) writing proficiency following a three-year degree study in an L2-medium university. A range of measures was used to assess writing, including global and discourse measures (accuracy, fluency, complexity). Consistent with Knoch et al. (2014), global scores of writing did not improve significantly over the three years of degree study. In terms of the discourse measures, also consistent with Knoch et al. (2014), fluency (measured via word count) increased significantly over three years of degree study, suggesting that participants were able to produce more words within the same allotted time, whereas accuracy, grammatical and lexical complexity did not change over time (2015:50 ).

110
paper corpusRLAtxt153 - : In this study we identify the number and the characteristics of the words used in letters by Primary and Secondary school EFL learners at the end of Spanish compulsory educational stages. The compositions were submitted to WordSmith Tools (Version 6.0) so as to classify the words according to alphabetic order, word frequency, statistical lists and collocation patterns in each of the courses under examination . We completed this quantitative analysis by means of a qualitative analysis of the top 50 word types for each course. Results revealed an increase in the means of words used in each educational stage, although the increase was lower than expected and practically based on substantives rather than on verbs, adjectives or adverbs. From a qualitatively perspective, we found similarities in the vocabulary used in the two courses. Nevertheless, we also observed differences that suggest the existence of idiosyncratic features at the end of each educational stage.

111
paper corpusRLAtxt153 - : The present study points to similarities and differences in learners' vocabulary performance. Similarities were found in the great number of shared words (37 out of 50) among the top 50 words as well as in the similar distribution of content words for each group: nouns predominate over verbs, adjectives and adverbs ; and regarding the other word categories, there is an increase of only one type in the lexical verbs category; on the contrary, adjectives and adverbs decreased in 10^th EFL learners' production. This finding does not allow us to claim the existence of growth in verbs, adjectives and adverbs as educational stage increases; at least as far as the 50 most frequent words are concerned. We need to look at the overall frequency lists in order to testify some growth in this regard. If we expand our analysis to the 100 most frequent words in each group, we obtain the following results for 10^th EFL learners: 32 grammatical words and 68 content words, which classified into word

112
paper corpusRLAtxt153 - : Regarding word frequency, two aspects are worth highlighting here. Firstly, the great resemblance of the lists in [30]Tables II and [31]III to the word frequencies found in Collins Cobuild Student's Dictionary and Grammar (1994) where the 10 most frequent words are grammatical words: the, of, and, to, a, in, that, I, it, was (in descending order ). As can be observed, the grammatical words shared by 6^th and 10^th EFL learners together with positions in the ranking are practically identical to the ones appearing in the above corpus.

113
paper corpusRLAtxt153 - : Secondly, the worlds projected by the shared content words are very similar in younger learners and adolescents: in both groups we find the personal pronoun I, the verb to be (in its different realizations ), and the possessive my and the word name in top positions. These words may be used by learners to express their identities. The presence of my, I, and like among the first positions in the frequency lists of both groups suggests a total correspondence between age and vocabulary; in this study, the informants are young learners and adolescents in the process of constructing their identities as human beings as well as English language learners. Although of different age, both groups share an egocentric view of the world; the first person pronoun I prevails over we oryou, which represent the others.

114
paper corpusRLAtxt58 - : To further test whether the low or high frequencies of the antecedent sentence had an effect on the identification of the tone words, the data was divided in three stimuli subsets: a ) One group was composed of the three sentence stimuli of higher frequencies than that of the naturally produced sentence (stimuli 1, 2 and 3, labeled as 'stim<4'); b) A second group formed by the sentence stimuli of lower frequencies than that of the naturally produced sentence (stimuli 5, 6 and 7, labeled as 'stim>4'), and c) A singleton representing the naturally spoken sentence ('stim 4' in the table). The counts, percentages of correct and incorrect identification of H and L tones and the corresponding significance levéis are summarized in [30]Table I. Just like in the overall results, there was no significant effect of the prompt sentence stimuli in the distribution of correct/incorrect responses, ñor there was an interaction with the tone of the word. Instead, an effect of the tone of the word was

115
paper corpusRLAtxt134 - : Keywords: Semantic knowledge, word associations, semantic networks, free-association task, self-organizing maps .

116
paper corpusRLAtxt134 - : En diversas ocasiones se han puesto de manifiesto las dificultades para acceder a muestras empíricas -especialmente en producción- de las que se puedan extraer conclusiones sobre cómo funciona el componente semántico. Existe, sin embargo, un conjunto de pruebas experimentales con una larga trayectoria de desarrollo experimental basadas en el paradigma de la libre asociación (Deese, 1962; Cramer, 1968), que son reconocidas como una valiosa fuente de datos para el acceso y la representación del componente semántico: "We assume that a dynamic associative structure is created in memory that involves representations of the word themselves as well as connections to other words" (Nelson, McEvoy & Schreiber, 1998: 4 ).

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paper corpusRLAtxt52 - : Vocabulary learning encompasses an array of processes that interact and contribute to deepening gradually the semantic knowledge of words. These processes occur in a cyclical way as learners develop their reading, writing, listening, and speaking proficiency over time (Ellis, 2008). These processes also occur in such a way that the learning of a vocabulary item is not an all-or-nothing event. Learners may acquire a vocabulary item to the point where they may be able to recognize it in reading input but not in listening input, may be able to retrieve the item from memory while writing but not while speaking, may be able to recognize the word or retrieve the phonetic or written form but not recall its meaning, may be able to recall the meaning in the short term but not in the long term, and may be able to recognize one meaning and be unaware of other meanings (Nation, 1990: 31-32 ). The focus of this study is vocabulary acquisition as it relates to the development of the so-called receptive

118
paper corpusRLAtxt52 - : The selected readings were found to include unknown words estimated in the following percentages: 22, 17, 22, 11 and 27% . The percentage of glossed words aut of the word total is 9, 17, 3, 0 and 12% respectively. The text coverage, defined as the number of words known, is estimated as 78, 83, 78, 89 and 73% respectively. [38]See Table IV and [39]Figure 3.

119
paper corpusRLAtxt139 - : Pennebaker, J.W., Booth, R.J. y Francis, M.E. (2007). Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (LIWC2007): A text analysis program . Austin, TX: LIWC.net. [ [89]Links ]

120
paper corpusRLAtxt110 - : Keywords: Word segmentation, vocabulary learning, child-directed speech, isolated words .

121
paper corpusRLAtxt110 - : Hence, one of the first problems that language learners have to face is the continuous nature of the speech stream. Speech lacks consistent physical markers of the location of word boundaries: words in fluent speech are not separated by pauses, or signaled by any other consistent feature occurring only at word onsets or endings (Aslin, Woodward, LaMendola & Bever, 1996 ; Cole & Jakimik, 1980). The fact that there are no consistent boundaries raises a difficult problem for children, who must anyway determine which sound strings are words and which are not.

122
paper corpusRLAtxt110 - : In order to test their hypothesis, Bernstein Ratner & Rooney (2001) analyzed examples of interactions between mothers and children who were in a very late preverbal stage. Data came from the Bernstein corpus of the CHILDES database. They first worked out the frequency of very short utterances (defined as utterances 1-3 words long), which should present language learners with very few segmentation decisions to take, or none at all. From all the maternal utterances analyzed, 24% consisted of a single word, 16% were two words long and 19% were three words long. Thus, 59% of child-directed utterances in the sample were three words long or less (Bernstein Ratner & Rooney, 2001: 72-73 ).

123
paper corpusRLAtxt124 - : The article discusses proper names used in phraseology. In the field of phraseology, different terms are used by different researchers to refer to a string of two or more words functioning as a whole and a single term may be used in reference to different phenomena. Granger and Meunier (2008: xix) attribute the lack of standardized terminology to the fact that phraseology has only relatively recently become established as a discipline in its own right. They explain that it deals with the study of word combinations rather than single words and that these multi-word units are classified into various subtypes on the basis of the following criteria: degree of semantic non-compositionality, syntactic fixedness, lexical restrictions and institutionalization .

124
paper corpusRLAtxt124 - : 'Idiom' is certainly a term that is widely used and the term most monolingual English dictionaries use (besides the term 'phrases') to introduce a section listing multi-word lexical items, whether semantically opaque or not, although they make no further typological classification. However, as Moon (1998a: 3-5) rightly points out, 'idiom' is an ambiguous term that she uses only occasionally to refer loosely to semi-transparent and opaque metaphorical expressions. She therefore prefers the term 'fixed expressions and idioms', which covers different kinds of phrasal lexemes, phraseological units, or multi-word lexical items, including idioms (ibid: 2 ). Gláser (1998: 125), on the other hand, defines an idiom as a dominant subtype within the all-embracing category of the phraseological unit, saying that an idiom is "a lexicalized, reproducible word group in common use, which has syntactic and semantic stability, and may carry connotations, but whose meaning cannot be derived from the meanings

125
paper corpusRLAtxt124 - : of its constituents". 'Phraseological unit' is another term that is increasingly used in phraseological research to denote a stable combination of words with a fully or partially figurative meaning (Kunin: 1970: 210), or a lexicalized, reproducible bilexemic or polylexemic word group in common use, which has relative syntactic and semantic stability, may be idiomatized, may carry connotations, and may have an emphatic or intensifying function in a text (Gláser, 1998: 125 ). According to Gláser (1984: 348), phraseological unit is used in some Slavonic and German linguistic traditions as a superordinate term for multi-word lexical items. 'Phraseme' is also used as a superordinate term (e.g., in Mel'cuk, 1995, but also in Slovene phraseological research, e.g, Krzisnik, 2010: 84), though not in the Anglo-American tradition. Other terms also encountered in the phraseological literature are multi-word lexical unit (Cowie, 1992), fixed expression (Moon, 1992a, Svensson, 2008), fixed phrase

126
paper corpusRLAtxt145 - : ^[40]4"AntConc is a freeware, multi-platform, multi-purpose corpus analysis toolkit [...] It hosts a comprehensive set of tools including a powerful concordancer, word and keyword frequency generators, tools for cluster and lexical bundle analysis, and a word distribution plot" (Anthony, 2004: 7 ).

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paper corpusRLAtxt114 - : […] it is well known that until the learner reads at a very high level of text comprehension and text coverage little new vocabulary can be guessed from context […] The optimal rate seems to be between 96 to 99% coverage of known words. Secondly, learners need to meet an unknown word many times before it is learned (Waring y Takaki, 2003: 135 ).

128
paper corpusRLAtxt233 - : La [69]Tabla II muestra la lista de frecuencia del subcorpus científico especializado. La interrogación se realiza fácilmente mediante el botón Word list, tras seleccionar el subcorpus (corpus: Ciencia ESP) y elegir como atributo "palabras" (search attribute: word ).

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paper corpusRLAtxt233 - : En la [72]Tabla III se comparan las palabras clave del subcorpus científico divulgativo con el subcorpus científico especializado con vistas a identificar cuáles son las palabras distintivas de DIV que se encuentran raramente en ES. La interrogación prevé los siguientes pasos: a) selección de Word list; b) elección del corpus: en este caso, Ciencia DIV; c) individuación del atributo: lemma^[73]^8; d) selección de Keywords (output type: Keywords ); e) elección del subcorpus de referencia con el que contrastar las listas de palabras de Ciencia DIV, que en este caso es Ciencia ESP (Reference subcorpus: Ciencia ESP).

130
paper corpusSignostxt236 - : Spoken word recognition in Mapudungu: A preliminary research

131
paper corpusSignostxt236 - : Key Words: Spoken word recognition, phonological priming, lexical decision, mapudungu .

132
paper corpusSignostxt426 - : To facilitate the work on the proposed aspects, as long as the quantitative analysis of the corpora, it is further suggested to resort to the methods employed in Corpus Linguistics, which has converted itself into one of the fundamental tools to thoroughly demonstrate what meanings and their political intentions arise during the course of interaction (Bolívar, 2009). Mainly, it is recommended to use WordSmith© 6.0 (Scott, 2008) software to build word lists and concordance lines (see Appendix for the concordance lines under the study ). For this purpose, the selected speech will be transformed into a text file since it is the only format recognized by WordSmith© 6.0.

133
paper corpusSignostxt455 - : Key Words: Computational linguistics ; word sense disambiguation; simplified-Lesk algorithm; associative memories; Alpha-Beta associative memories

134
paper corpusSignostxt455 - : Human language is based on the use of discrete units (i.e., words) that interact in non-random ways to construct a large variety of sentences (^[26]Ferrer i Cancho & Solé, 2001). Typically, in any language, there are many words that can have more than one meaning, generating ambiguity that can only be resolved by analyzing the context of where the word occurs. In Computational Linguistics, Word Sense Disambiguation (WSD) is one of the most important and challenging current problems. WSD refers to the “ability to computationally determine which sense of a word is adequate depending on its use in a particular context” (^[27]Navigli, 2009: 3 ). WSD is considered to be the most important problem to solve in automated text understanding. It is, therefore, a crucial resource for applications such as machine translation (^[28]Vickrey, Biewald, Teyssier & Koller, 2005; ^[29]Carpuat & Wu, 2007; ^[30]Chan, Ng & Chiang, 2007), information retrieval (^[31]Zhong & Ng, 2012), information extraction

135
paper corpusSignostxt455 - : Current approaches for automatic WSD can be classified into four groups according to the methodology employed for selecting the correct sense of the word to be disambiguated: supervised, unsupervised, semi-supervised, and knowledge-based approaches (^[52]Borah et al ., 2014; ^[53]Nandanwar & Mamulkar, 2015).

136
paper corpusSignostxt455 - : 1. Isolation of the ambiguous word: the ambiguous word to be evaluated is removed from the sentence ; the remaining words are a considered as the ‘context’ set.

137
paper corpusSignostxt455 - : For example, consider the following sentence: “The banker deposits money in my father’s accounts��. To perform WSD on the word ‘deposits’, employing the ABWSD max type method, we perform the following steps:

138
paper corpusSignostxt520 - : This investigation presents a characterization of the colloquial usage of the word su’ of Santiago de Chile speakers within two dimensions: grammatical and sociolinguistic . First, a historical review allows to indicate that the colloquial use of approximative, ponderative and affective ‘su’, with a mostly determining function, has its origins in Latin language and can be found in early Spanish testimonies and subsequently in other Hispano-American countries. After the revision of 108 sociolinguistic interviews, it can be concluded that the use of ‘su’ as an affective determinant constitutes a possessive differentiated value, not described neither in grammars nor in any following studies. Along with this, it is concluded that it is possible to group these usage cases of ‘su’ in five thematic axes: 1) refreshments and liquors, 2) food, 3) home utensils or important possessions, 4) events, processes and activities and 5) human beings. Finally, findings about the sociolinguistic distribution in

139
paper corpusSignostxt339 - : Key Words: Word order, linearization, SVO, syntax .

140
paper corpusSignostxt592 - : Spelling. This task, by ^[125]Signorini and Borzone (2003), consists of writing six lists of words: 1 ) high frequency short and long words with consonant-vowel syllables (eight items); 2) high frequency short and long words with complex phonological structure, e.g., consonant-vowel-consonant (eight items); 3) low frequency short and long words (eight items); 4) low frequency short and long complex words (eight items); 5) orthographic complex words (eight items) and 6) pseudowords (ten items). A phonological criterion was used to score this task: one point was assigned to each word in which all the phonemes were represented. The task has an internal consistency reliability of 0.99 on the word lists and of 0.92 on the pseudoword list.

141
paper corpusSignostxt266 - : Ejemplos de usos estratégicos de las palabras se encuentran todos los días. En Atenas, para dar un caso, existe una compañía de mudanzas que se llama mehaphor¡. Es una buena estrategia, un uso inteligente de una metonimia -el nombre por la función-, para sustituir y reducir la función de transferir, que la compañía realiza a diario, a través del nombre de la misma. Pero, tal como el nombre de la compañía solo representa la función general de transferir muebles y objetos de un lugar a otro, así también el acercamiento retórico estándar al término 'metáfora' solo describe y reduce este tropo como "changing a word from its literal meaning to one not properly applicable but analogous to it" (Lanham, 1991: 188 ).

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paper corpusSignostxt536 - : * WFC task_ The fragments were produced by randomly deleting 3 letters from 6 and 7 letter words and 4 letters from 8 and 9 letter words. For instance, the word ‘sweater’ when turned into a word fragment item, looked like: s - -at - r . The word fragment task consisted of thirty items, a random mixture of fifteen ‘primed’ and fifteen ‘non-primed’ words.

143
paper corpusSignostxt536 - : * WSC task_ For word stem completion, the first three letters were maintained as a cue and the rest of the letters were omitted. In this case, the word ‘sweater’ when turned into a word stem, looked like: swe - - - . The WSC task consisted of thirty items, a random mixture of fifteen ‘primed’ and fifteen ‘non-primed’ words.

144
paper corpusSignostxt536 - : * Anagram solution task_ Anagrams were in fact a random scramble of the letters in each word, therefore the participants needed to generate a word out of the letters by using all the letters and not using any of the letters given more than once. Taking the previous example, anagram solution task generated out of the word ‘sweater’ looked like: tersewa . The anagram solution task consisted of thirty items, a random mixture of fifteen ‘primed’ and fifteen ‘non-primed’ words.

145
paper corpusSignostxt469 - : Through this ‘achievement’ CS the learner substitutes a lexical item for a related one that shares semantic features with the target word. The analysis revealed that this L2-based CS was more often employed by the learners when performing the jigsaw to compensate for specific lexical items. These items - which were recurrent problems - in most cases, referred to certain actions, such as: subir/bajar las escaleras (‘go up/down the stairs’), servir vino (‘pour the champagne’), vestir/llevar (‘s/he is wearing...’), or to specific words: traje (‘suit’ ), techo (‘ceiling’), corcho (‘cork’) amongst others. The following example illustrates the use of this CS (as underlined).

146
paper corpusSignostxt469 - : *‘accento’, target word: acento, ‘accent’

147
paper corpusSignostxt545 - : Chertkow, H., Bub, D., Murtha, S., Beauregard, M., Gold, D., Hosein, C., et al. & Evans, A. (1996). Variability of brain regions in word processing: Evidence for dissociation of processing levels . Ponencia presentada en the Third Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Neuroscience Society, San Francisco, Estados Unidos. [ [137]Links ]

148
paper corpusSignostxt522 - : El significado lingüístico, que es uno de los temas que más ha preocupado al ser humano desde los inicios de su historia (^[35]Yallop, 2004), se aborda, sin embargo, con escasa base empírica hasta la llegada de la lingüística de corpus en la década de 1980. No obstante, ya ^[36]Malinowski (1923) advierte, desde la antropología, la necesidad de estudiar el significado en conexión con el uso. Estudiando las culturas de Oceanía, el autor observa, por ejemplo, que las palabras equivalentes en una lengua oceánica a ‘madera’ y ‘canoa’ adquieren significados metafóricos que solo se advierten si se entiende el contexto comunicativo en el que estas voces son usadas: “The meaning of a single word is to a very high degree dependent on its context” (^[37]Malinowski, 1923: 306 ). ^[38]Firth (1935) considera asimismo que el significado de una palabra está ligado al uso cotidiano de dicha palabra en sociedad y que no debe estudiarse de forma abstracta: “The complete meaning of a word is always con

149
paper corpusSignostxt336 - : Before formulating the linguistic point we are going to test via computer experiments, we will first localize it within the vast realm of linguistics. Our statement is concerned with the concept of collocation, one of contemporary controversial issues in theoretical and applied linguistics. Knowledge of collocation is very important in lexicology (Herbst & Mittmann, 2008), translation (Boonyasaquan, 2006), language acquisition (Handl, 2008), and in various tasks of automated processing of natural language (e.g., in automatic word sense disambiguation: Jin, Sun, Wu & Yu, 2007 ; in machine translation: Wehrli, Seretan, Nerima & Russo, 2009; in text classification: Williams, 2002, etc.).

150
paper corpusSignostxt336 - : About 70 lexical functions have been identified in (Mel’čuk, 1996); each is associated with a particular meaning according to which it receives its name. The name of a lexical function is an abbreviated Latin word whose semantic content is closest to the meanings of this lexical function. Using the above notation, the collocation dar un paseo, lit. give a walk, is represented as Oper1(paseo) = dar where ‘Oper’ is from Latin operari (do, carry out); the argument, or the keyword of this lexical function is paseo; its value is dar; the subscript 1 stores information concerning the syntactical structure of utterances where the keyword of Oper1 (paseo) is used together with its value (dar) and where the first argument of paseo (Agent) is lexicalized in speech as the grammatical subject: Mi abuela (Agent ) da un paseo por este parque cada sábado, My grandma takes a walk in this park every Saturday. Other collocations that are isomorphic to dar un paseo can be represented likewise, and, in fact,

151
paper corpusSignostxt336 - : The next step in data preparation was to find out in what sense words were used in collocations. So every noun and every verb in the list was disambiguated manually with word senses of the Spanish WordNet (Vossen, 1998). Word senses in this dictionary are designated by numbers and represented by synsets, or synonym sets, consisting of words synonymous with each other and naming one concept. A synset may be accompanied by a brief definition, or ‘gloss’. Below we give all senses for the word broma, joke, found in the Spanish WordNet; each sense has its number, synset and gloss, words in synsets are written in the form ‘word_number of the sense’:

152
paper corpusSignostxt356 - : Keys Word: Writing, orthographic errors, orality-writing, accentuation, use of spelling .

153
paper corpusSignostxt295 - : learning process, in which language functions as 'substance' (learning a language, be it L1 or a foreign language), as 'instrument' (learning through language, which applies to all fields of knowledge and to all educational levels), and as 'object' (learning about language: grammar, genres, registers, word formation, etc.). In Halliday's (1978: 1) words:

154
paper corpusSignostxt283 - : The present study attempts to explore expressions of interpersonal meaning more systematically, drawing on SFL theory. The metafunctional nature of this theory not only provides a systematic means for differentiating interpersonal meaning from ideational and textual meanings, but also for exploring how they relate to each other. Within SFL, Appraisal offers the theorization of interpersonal meaning choices in discourse (see Martin, 2000; Martin & Rose, 2003, 2007; Hood, 2004; Hood & Martin, 2005; Martin & White, 2005). A central concept of Appraisal theory is that speakers of a language use evaluative resources "for negotiating our social relationships, by telling our listeners or readers how we feel about things and people (in a word, what our attitudes are)" (Martin & Rose, 2003:19 ). The focus of analysis of this study deals with one of the Appraisal systems outlined by these authors -Engagement, which includes "all the resources by which the textual or authorial voice is positioned

155
paper corpusSignostxt557 - : “Boulanger hypothesizes that in the case of competition, only the new word itself (i.e., the word form) must be accepted by speakers. In the no-competition case, both the new word and new referent must be accepted” (^[78]Cook, 2010: 35 ) .

156
paper corpusSignostxt480 - : * Underlined word: Emphasized word by the teacher

157
paper corpusSignostxt506 - : cuenta del modo en que suele ser usado. En base a la norma de storm, al Word Sketch de ‘libro’ y al análisis realizado, elaboramos la siguiente propuesta para la norma de ‘libro’:

158
paper corpusSignostxt242 - : Key Word: Professional discourse, professional communication, discoursive genres, LSP competence, disciplinary expertise .

159
paper corpusSignostxt497 - : Key Words: Testing effect ; word learning; foreign language learning; proactive interference; semantic categorisation.

160
paper corpusSignostxt282 - : The present study attempts to explore expressions of interpersonal meaning more systematically, drawing on SFL theory. The metafunctional nature of this theory not only provides a systematic means for differentiating interpersonal meaning from ideational and textual meanings, but also for exploring how they relate to each other. Within SFL, Appraisal offers the theorization of interpersonal meaning choices in discourse (see Martin, 2000; Martin & Rose, 2003, 2007; Hood, 2004; Hood & Martin, 2005; Martin & White, 2005). A central concept of Appraisal theory is that speakers of a language use evaluative resources "for negotiating our social relationships, by telling our listeners or readers how we feel about things and people (in a word, what our attitudes are)" (Martin & Rose, 2003:19 ). The focus of analysis of this study deals with one of the Appraisal systems outlined by these authors -Engagement, which includes "all the resources by which the textual or authorial voice is positioned

161
paper corpusSignostxt472 - : Key Words: Neologism ; syntagma; loan word; hybrid formation; calque

162
paper corpusSignostxt415 - : Solo Stilus® identifica y corrige correctamente el error de (7). El corrector de Word no señala ningún error en (5-7), y tanto Stilus® como SpanishChecker® plantean una corrección equivocada en dos casos en los que detectan una falta: el primero, en (5 ), plantea incluir la preposición a, lo cual resultaría en una combinación incorrecta (*vete a haber), y SpanishChecker®, en (6), propone eliminar la preposición ‘a’ (‘tiene que ver ‘no es lo mismo que ‘tiene que haber’, que es lo que se quiere decir).

163
paper corpusSignostxt415 - : En concreto, en este texto de 9.000 palabras, en el que hay 8.100 bigramas, si el algoritmo llama la atención sobre los 100 pares con las menores puntuaciones, que son los que más probablemente pueden contener un error –y de hecho, ocho son incorrectos– será muy útil; sobre todo, porque se trata de errores que otros correctores no identifican como tales. Por ejemplo, de esos ocho errores, los correctores destinados específicamente al aprendiz de español como L2, identifican dos cada uno. Grammar Checker®, por un lado, señala (15 y 16); y Stilus®, por su parte (13 y 16). De igual forma, el corrector de Microsoft Word identifica dos de los ocho errores: (14 y 17 ).

164
paper corpusSignostxt415 - : Ahora bien, para realizar una evaluación más completa de los resultados obtenidos con la aplicación del algoritmo que presentamos aquí, vamos a compararlos con los del corrector de Microsoft Word, pues, en principio, ambos están destinados al hablante nativo. El algoritmo basado en el análisis estadístico de frecuencias indica ocho bigramas de los nueve que contienen errores en el texto de 9.000 palabras, pero además resalta 92 combinaciones más que son correctas –son falsos positivos porque los datos nos llevan a pensar que se ha cometido una falta cuando en realidad la secuencia es correcta��. Por su parte, Microsoft Word señala los dos errores que recogimos antes (14 y 17) y asimismo esta falta de concordancia:

165
paper corpusSignostxt415 - : “To sum up, the statistical grammar checker will fail to capture errors if the errors are not word combination problems or they involve problems of non-adjacent word strings or conflicts across different clause boundaries” (Chen, 2009: 175 ).

166
paper corpusSignostxt416 - : 8) Inverse word order. This phenomenon occurs when the dominating word order Subject–Verb–(Indirect)Object is inversed to (Indirect)Object–Verb–Subject:

167
paper corpusSignostxt416 - : Figure 2. Distribution of types of errors by issues for each dataset. R stands for the RawWeb dataset, F for FactSpaCIC. The issues are indicated with numbers: 1: underspecified noun phrase, 2: overspecified verb phrase, 3: non-contiguous verb phrase, 4: N-ary relation, 5: conditional clause, 6: relative clause, 7: coordinate structure, 8: inverse word order, 9: incorrect POS-tagging, 10: grammatical errors, 11: others .

168
paper corpusSignostxt414 - : is less probable to happen, as opposed to what may occur when using ‘transfer’ (L1-based messages) or ‘avoidance’ types of CSs (unfinished messages or omission of information). Something similar, in terms of complexity, can be evidenced in the use of ‘foreignising’. In the excerpt above it can be seen that this mechanism implies a greater effort on the part of the speaker, who is trying to adapt a word from her L1 into the L2. By doing this, it becomes clear that this type of CS, as ‘circumlocution’, requires a higher cognitive and linguistic effort, since “it requires a construction process which leads to the creation of a new word” (Dörnyei & Kormos, 1998: 364 ). Thus, this outcome seems to demonstrate the learners’ progress from the use of less cognitively and linguistically demanding CSs to those considered more complex as their level of L2 competence progresses (Prebianca, 2009).

169
paper corpusSignostxt488 - : These studies have shown the various issues that arise when specifying a gender for foreign borrowings. These loanwords can differ from language to language and “have important implications for attempts to determine the structure of the lexicon” (^[70]Corbett, 1991: 8 ). ^[71]Poplack et al. (1982) identified the following major determinants of gender attribution in Spanish and French, which we will now exemplify using Anglicisms included in the 23^rd edition of the ^[72]DLE (2014). The factor that they found most predictive of gender is the physiological sex of the animate referent: for instance, internauta, a word derived from English ‘internaut’ ‘Internet user,’ can be el internauta or la internauta depending on whether the Internet user is male or female. Another parameter includes the phonological shape of the word, as when certain terminal phonemes of the original language are linked to a specific gender in the host language, e.g., ‘jogging’ < el jogging (loanwords ending in -ing tend

170
paper corpusSignostxt488 - : For this reason, the composition of the word ‘selfie’ can be seen as atypical in Spanish, both morphologically and phonologically. Moreover, the fact that the suffix is spelled -ie, but pronounced /i/, poses an additional problem for the incorporation of the word into Spanish. Dropping the final letter in a word like selfi < selfie is nothing new, since other borrowings have undergone the same change, like el dron < drone. Nevertheless, adapting the word into Spanish in this way involves a conscious process of educating speakers in using one form over another. As evidenced by the example bogie, the adaptation of words that end in the phoneme /i/ is not always consistent. In the words of the Fundéu’s director Joaquín Muller: ‘La evidencia del uso abrumador del anglicismo ‘selfie’ nos hizo pensar que, sin renunciar a nuestro consejo anterior para emplear autofoto, sería bueno proponer una adaptación [selfi], que además en este caso no ofrecía problemas desde el punto de vista de la

171
paper corpusSignostxt157 - : Butler, C.S. (1997). Repeated word combinations in spoken and written text: Some implications for Functional Grammar . En C.S. Butler, J.H. Connolly, R.A. Gatward, & R.M. Vismans (Eds.), A fund of ideas: Recent developments in Functional Grammar (pp. 60 77). Amsterdam: IFOTT, Amsterdam University. [ [50]Links ]

172
paper corpusSignostxt396 - : The initial stage of this study involved compiling a list of the lexical items from the semantic fields of building and animals, which were used in Angling (1988) and in Eskerod (1996). The corpus of project management texts was electronically queried for those items with WordSmith Tools 5, and a list of concordances was obtained. The list was manually analyzed for metaphorical uses (Pragglejaz Group, 2007). Moreover, the corpus word list was generated to search for other lexical items from the two semantic fields mentioned in the corpus. In order to ensure reliability at this particular stage, the lexical items selected from the word list were checked against Wordnet synsets ([24]http://wordnet .princeton.edu/) and additionally, other items from the two semantic fields given by Wordnet were searched for in the corpus word list. In this way, a complete list of lexical items from the two semantic fields, considered as the metaphor candidates, was produced. After that, the corpus was

173
paper corpusSignostxt396 - : Of the 46 building lexical items from the corpus word list, 25 were used metaphorically. ‘Build’, ‘foundation’, ‘construct’, ‘base’, and ‘architecture’ registered the highest frequencies in the corpus ([27]Figure 1). Regarding the animal vehicles, of the 86 lexical items identified in the corpus word list, 55 were used metaphorically: nearly twice as many as the building items . [28]Figure 2 shows the 34 most frequently used metaphor vehicles and their frequencies, while the data concerning the remaining and less frequent metaphor vehicles are included in [29]Appendix 2. In comparison to the building vehicles, more animal vehicles (13) registered significant frequencies (above the average frequency of 0.050): ‘grow’, ‘life’, ‘agile’, ‘body’, ‘health’, ‘head’, ‘face’, ‘neural’, ‘vital’, ‘mature’, ‘lifecycle’, ‘kill’, ‘survive’. Only four building vehicles (‘build’, ‘foundation’, ‘base’, ‘architecture’) were used in this ran

174
paper corpusSignostxt396 - : ‘Window’, registering a co-occurrence of 54.5% with the key words, was used with a metaphorically originated terminological sense (Philip, 2010) for a software system element. Thus, its relevance for the building metaphorical theme is questionable. ‘Build’, the most frequent vehicle co-occurring with the corpus key words, registered a notably low percentage for this type of word combination: 30 .6%. ‘Build’ is a polysemous lexeme, used in highly conventionalized metaphorical expressions in a variety of contexts (see ‘build knowledge’ in example 5). The polysemous metaphoric uses of ‘build’ could explain why this is the most frequent building vehicle in project management discourse, despite its infrequent co-occurrence with the corpus key words (example 6).

175
paper corpusSignostxt156 - : En segundo lugar, utilizando el programa WordPilot, se hizo para cada artículo una búsqueda de términos siguiendo la lista sugerida por Hyland (2000: 191193 ) que evidentemente tuvo que adaptarse al español. Así, por ejemplo, se buscaron términos como: puede, debe, posible, nosotros, entre otras, y las inflexiones verbales os e ía(n). Cada caso fue cotejado con los textos para asegurar que pertenecía al discurso del autor del artículo y no a referencias textuales de otras fuentes. El resultado fue copiado en formato Word, lo que permitió ubicar el ítem en su contexto más amplio, como se aprecia en (16):

176
paper corpusSignostxt494 - : All of the 50 stem sentences presented to participants in the experiment were structured as neutral definitions (Mosquitoes are____). For each of these stem sentences, two critical words were selected: a word that would make the whole sentence literally congruous (‘Mosquitoes are insects’ ) and a word that would make the sentence literally incongruous but metaphorically congruous (‘Mosquitoes are vampires’). Both sets of critical words (literal and metaphorical) presented the same frequency of use (t(98) = 0.58; p = 0.68) in a corpus of Chilean Spanish (^[76]Sadowsky & Martínez, 2012). As for the length, different word-lengths were equally represented in the compared conditions (Literal, M = 2.82, SD = 0.87 vs Metaphorical, M = 2.52, SD = 0.68), with no statistical differences (t(98) = 1.92; p = 0.58). This generated 100 sentences belonging to two conditions, a literal one and a metaphorical one. Two other conditions were implemented to encourage participants to face linguistic stimuli from

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paper corpusSignostxt438 - : En el segundo supuesto, el llamado ojo-mente, se establece que el ojo permanece fijo en una palabra por todo el tiempo en que ella esté siendo procesada semánticamente; de este modo, el tiempo que “it takes to process a newly fixated word is directly indicated by the gaze duration” (Just & Carpenter, 1980: 33 ). A tales efectos, los autores aclaran que comprender una palabra a menudo implica el uso de información de partes previas del texto, sin que se haya registrado ninguna regresión. En este contexto, un supuesto central de la presente investigación es que el registro de los movimientos oculares durante la lectura normal y silenciosa de un texto constituye uno de los mejores métodos disponibles para estudiar los procesos cognitivos efectivos de lectura (Just & Carpenter, 1980; Rayner, Pollatsek, Ashby & Clifton, 2012).

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paper corpusSignostxt432 - : Esta investigación se centra en las tecnologías y recursos más accesibles, dirigidos al público general, gratuitos e intuitivos. En concreto, nos referimos a: 1) diccionarios de la lengua general (DRAE, DIEC, Cobuild, Wordreference), monolingües o plurilingües; 2) traductores automáticos (Google Translate, Instituto Cervantes, El País); 3) verificadores otrográficos (incorporados a los procesadores Word u OpenOffice); 4) conjugadores verbales (Onoma, Reverso); 5) córpora de textos (CREA), y 6) otros recursos variados (vocabularios, bancos terminológicos [TermCat, IATE]), analizadores morfosintácticos (CLIC), oralizadores, etc. La selección incluye recursos de autoridad (DRAE) y populares (Wordreference, Google Search), puesto que nuestro punto de vista es el del usuario real . Finalmente, nos referiremos a estas herramientas con la denominación simplificada de ‘recursos’.

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paper corpusSignostxt510 - : A partir de una concepción eminentemente generativa y, por tanto, computacional del lenguaje natural, la Teoría del Lexicón Generativo, desarrollada por ^[64]Pustejovsky en diversos trabajos (1991, ^[65]1995, ^[66]1998, ^[67]2013), reacciona contra el estatismo de las teorías semánticas al uso a mediados del siglo xx, en tanto que aboga por la naturaleza dinámica del lenguaje; en este sentido: “The difficulty here for semantics and computational lexicons is that word sense enumeration cannot characterize all the possible meanings of the lexical item in the lexicon” (^[68]Pustejovsky, 1998: 46 ; ^[69]Piera, 2009; ^[70]Pustejovsky, Bouillon, Isahara, Kanzaki & Lee, 2013).

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paper corpusSignostxt510 - : ^4En aras de fidelidad al original, cito a continuación las palabras del autor: “By defining the functional behavior of lexical items at different levels of representation we hope to arrive at a characterization of the lexicon as an active and integral component in the composition of sentence meanings. Because of the more expressive mechanisms involved in composition, this approach will enable us to conflate different word senses into a single meta-entry” (Pustejovsky, 1998: 62 ).

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paper corpusSignostxt408 - : Key Words: Visual word recognition, semantic categorization, word learning, incidental reading, vocabulary exercises .

Evaluando al candidato word:

4) lexical: 35 (*)
6) learners: 25 (*)
7) items: 25
8) corpus: 23 (*)
9) learning: 23
14) semantic: 21 (*)
15) vocabulary: 21 (*)
19) sentence: 20 (*)

word
Lengua: eng
Frec: 2076
Docs: 678
Nombre propio: 26 / 2076 = 1%
Coocurrencias con glosario: 6
Frec. en corpus ref. en eng: 729
Puntaje: 6.715 = (6 + (1+7.59991284218713) / (1+11.0202855008446)));
Rechazado: muy disperso; muy común;

Referencias bibliográficas encontradas sobre cada término

(Que existan referencias dedicadas a un término es también indicio de terminologicidad.)

word

: Difficult as it is to arrive at a satisfactory definition of particle, an attempt must be made at the outset. I will define it as a word expressing a mode of thought, considered either in isolation or in relation to another thought, or a mood of emotion. (^[45]Denniston, 1954, p. XXXVII)
: “To our knowledge, the current study is the first in the oncology informed consent literature that sought to apply readability measures designed for the written word to the transcribed spoken word”. [Cancer 2016, 122(3), p.467]
: “the latter is expressed over stretches of discourse, whilst by and large lexicographers […] find it easy and natural to think in terms of individual word meaning” (Morley & Partington, 2009: 151).
: 2. Define the population from which samples are to be collected. According to ^[56]Cohen et al. (2007), the word population “refers not only to people but also, and mainly, to text-the domains of the analysis” (p. 477).
: 6. Translator/Interpreter: For this role, HLs are asked to translate instructions or information provided in Spanish into English. They can also provide the Spanish equivalent of an English word or expression (^[76]Felix, 2009).
: ------; (2016). Deconstructing the non-episodic readings of Spanish deverbal adjectives. Word Structure 9, 1-41.
: 10. De Groot, A. M. B. (1993). Word Type Effect in Bilingual Processing Tasks. Sopport for a Mixed-Representational System: 27-51. En The Bilingual Lexicon. R. Schreuder & B Weltens, eds. John Benjamins Publishing Company.
: 10. Dowty, David. 1979. Word meaning and montague grammar. Dordretch: Kluwer.
: 13. Jakobson, R. (1984). Shifters, verbal categories and the Russian verb. Selected writings, Vol. 2: Word and Language, 130-147. The Hague: Mouton.
: 13.Romero-Figueroa, Andrés. 1997. Basic word order and sentence types in Kariña.München: Lincom Europa.
: 14. Coxhead, A. (2000). A new academic word list. TESOL Quarterly, 34(2), 213-238. [Enlace a la lista: [51]http://www.victoria.ac.nz/lals/resources/academicwordlist/].
: 14. Dowty, David. 1979. Word meaning and Montague grammar. London: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
: 15. Coxhead, A. y Hirsh, D. (2007). A pilot science-specific word list. Revue française de linguistique appliquée, 12(2), 65-78.
: 18. Hengeveld, K., Rijkhoff, J. y Siewierska, A. (2004). Parts of Speech Systems and Word Order. Journal of Linguistics, 40(3), 527-570.
: 18. Nation, I. S. P. y Waring, R. (1997). Vocabulary size, text coverage and word lists. En Schmitt, N. y M. McCarthy (Eds.), Vocabulary: Description, Acquisition and Pedagogy (pp. 6-19). Cambridge: Cambridge UP.
: 18. Romero Figueroa, A. (2000). Basic word order and sentence types in Kariña (Colección Languages of the World, Vol. 18). Munich: LINCOM EUROPA.
: 19. Macedo, D. & Freire, P. (1987). Literacy: Reading the Word an the World. Westport, CT: Bergin & Garvey
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